'c 0' 






c^. 






.<^" 









-\^^"-- 



0^ 






.\\ , '^ c 



ST."- 



.^^ •%.. 






■V 



^^ '''^^ 



%. v^^ 



vO< 



■J-- .\ 



>^> .^x 









fU- S^~ 






..^^ c°^ 



vV ■=t. 






a5 



,0 o 



""^,. .-i^ 



>^ ^^. 






i> ^, 



^^^ 



• ^-f 



%. 



\- .<^' 



% .^"^^ 



vOO, 



x^'' ■^>^., 



A' .r- 



A' 






.^^^ 



a"! 






'X" 






■"^f-, t'i 



.^" "'^-.- 



'^^ V^' 












<- A^ 



O 0' 



/ "•f' 



„--^^ » 









.^'" -% 












57th CoNGRKSSfl 

1st Session. ) 



SENATE. 



Document 
No. 84. 



MESSAGE 



FROM THE 



PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 



TEANSMITTING 



A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN 

RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND 

MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN 

APPALACHIAN REGION. 



December 19, 1901. — Eead, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations 
and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1902. 



57th Congress, ) SENATE. j Doctjment 

1st Session. f ( No. 84. 



MESSAGE 



FROM THE 



PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, 



TRANSMITTING 



A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN 

RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND 

MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN 

APPALACHIAN REGION. 



December 19, 1901. — Read, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations 
and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed. 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
1902. 



LETTER OF TRAI^SMITT AL. 



To the Senate and House of Rejnesentatives: 

I transmit herewith a report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pre- 
pared in collaboration with the Department of the Interior, upon the 
forests, rivers, and mountains of the Southern Appalachian region, and 
upon its agricultural situation as affected by them. The report of the 
Secretary presents the final results of an investigation authorized by 
the last Congress. Its conclusions point unmistakably, in the judg- 
ment of the Secretarj^ and in my own, to the creation of a national 
forest reserve in certain parts of the Southern States. The facts ascer- 
tained and here presented deserve the careful consideration of the 
Congress; they have already received the full attention of the scientist 
and the lumberman. They set forth an economic need of prime impor- 
tance to the welfare of the South, and hence to that of the nation as a 
whole, and they point to the necessity of protecting through wise use 
a mountain region whose influence flows far bej^ond its borders with 
the waters of the rivers to which it gives rise. 

Among the elevations of the eastern half of the United States the 
Southern Appalachians are of paramount interest for geographic, 
hydrographic, and forest reasons, and, as a consequence, for economic 
reasons as well. These great mountains are old in the history of the 
continent which has grown up about them. The hard-wood forests 
were born on their slopes and have spread thence over the eastern half 
of the continent. More than once in the remote geologic past they 
have disappeared before the sea on the east, south, and west, and before 
the ice on the north; but here in this Southern Appalachian region 
they have lived on to the present day. 

Under the varying conditions of soil, elevation, and climate many of 
the Appalachian tree species have developed. Hence it is that in this 
region occur that marvelous variety and richness of plant growth which 
have Jed our ablest business men and scientists to ask for its pi'esei'va- 
tion by the Government for the advancement of science and for the 
instruction and pleasure of the people of our own and of future genera- 
tions. And it is the concentration here of so many valuable species 
with such favorable conditions of growth which has led forest experts 
and lumbermen alike to assert that of all the continent this region is 

3 



4 LETTEB OF TRANSMITTAL. 

bebt suited to the purposes and plans of a national forest reserve in the 
hard-wood region. 

The conclusions of the Secretarj- of Agriculture are summarized as 
follows in his report: 

" i. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the highest peaks 
and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is the great 
physiographic feature of the eastern half of the continent, and no 
such lofty mountains are covered with hard-wood forests in all North 
America. 

"2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of the 
United States, except that of the North Pacific coast. It is often of 
extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 
Inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year. 

"3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by torrential 
rains, rapidlj^ loses first its humus, then its rich upper strata, and finally 
is washed in enormous volume into the streams, to bury such of the 
fertile lowlands as are not eroded bj' the floods, to obstruct the rivers, 
and to fill up the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now washed 
from these cleared mountain-side fields during a single heavj^rain than 
during centuries under forest cover. 

"4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appalachians flow 
into or along the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf and from 
the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses are agricultural, 
water-power, and navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely 
essential to the well-being of the nation. 

"5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be accomplished 
only by the conservation of the forests. 

"6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood forests of 
the continent. In them species from east and west, from north and 
south, mingle in a growth of unparalleled richness and variety. They 
contain many species of the first commercial value, and furnish impor- 
tant supplies which can not be obtained from any other region. 

' ' 7. For economic reasons the preservation of these forests is impera- 
tive. Their existence in good condition is essential to the prosperity 
of the lowlands through which their waters run. Maintained in pro- 
ductive condition they will supply indispensable materials, which must 
fail without them. Their management under practical and conserva- 
tive forestry" will sustain and increase the resources of this region and 
of the nation at large, will serve as an invaluable object lesson in the 
advantages and practicability of forest preservation by use, and will 
soon be self-supporting from the sale of timber. 

"8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appalachian region 
must be protected and preserved. To that end the preservation of 
the forests is an indispensable condition, which will lead not to the 
reduction but to the increase of the yield of agricultural products. 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 5 

" 9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest destruc 
tion continues, will increase in frequency and violence and in the 
extent of their damages, both within this region and across the bor- 
dering States. The extent of these damages, like those from the wash- 
ing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with perfect 
accuracy, but during the present j^ear alone the total has approximated 
$10,000,000, a sum suflicient to purchase the entire area recom- 
mended for the proposed reserve. But this loss can not be estimated 
in money value alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of 
conditions most valuable to the nation, and which neither skill nor 
wealth can restore. 

"10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of the 
agricultural interests here described can be successfully accomplished 
only by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve. The 
States of the Southern Appalachian region own little or no land, and 
their revenues are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action 
is obviously necessary, is fully justified by reasons of public necessity, 
and may be expected to have most fortunate results." 

With these conclusions I fully agree; and I heartily commend this 
measure to the favorable consideration of the Congress. 

Theodoke Koosevelt. 

White House, 

Dece))iber 19, 1901. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Report of the Secretary of Agriculture 13 

Nature and extent of this investigation 14 

The Appalachian region 16 

The Soutliern Appalachian region 17 

The Southern Appalachian Mountains " 18 

The forests 21 

Forest clearing and agriculture in the Southern Appalachians 25 

Forest clearings, the rivers, and floods 28 

The climate of the Southern Appalachians 33 

How can these forests be preserved 34 

Conditions of purchase and management 36 

Conclusions 38 

Appendix A. — Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern 

Appalachians 41 

Description of the forests and forest conditions by mountain groups 46 

Forests of the Blue Ridge 46 

Forests of the White Top Moimtain region 47 

Forests of Roan, Grandfather, and the Black mountains 49 

Forests of the central interior mountain ridges 51 

Forests of the Great Smoky Mountains 53 

Forests of the southern end of the Appalachians 54 

Changes in forest conditions of the Southeri Appalachians 55 

Forests cleared for farming purposes 57 

Forests injured by fires 55 

Lumbering in the Southern Appalachians now and under Government 

ownership and supervision 61 

Application of conservative forest methods to -this region by the Govern- 
ment practicable and profitable 62 

Some evils of the present system of lumbering 63 

Recent lumbering methods more profitable, but also destructive 64 

Objects and policy of forest management under Government ownership.. 65 

Improvement in general forest policy necessary 66 

Considerations that should govern in the management of the proposed 

forest reserve 67 

Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins 69 

New River Basin 69 

South Fork of Holston River Basin 70 

Watauga River Basin 72 

Nolichucky River Basin 74 

French Broad River Basin 76 

Big Pigeon River Basin 78 

Northwestern slope of Smoky Mountains 79 

Little Tennessee River Basin 80 

7 



O CONTENTS. 

Page. 
Appendix A. — Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern 
Appalachians — Cmilinued. 
Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins — Conlinued. 

Hiwassee River Basin 82 

Tallulah-Chattooga River Basin 84 

Toxaway River Basin 85 

Saluda River Basin 87 

First and Second Broad River Basin 87 

Catawba River Basin 88 

Yadkin River Basin 90 

Trees of the Southern Appalachians 93 

List of shrubs growing in the Southern Appalachians 107 

Appendix B. — Topography and geology of the Southern Appalachians Ill 

The mountain systems 113 

The river systems 115 

Climatic features in the mountains 117 

The geologic formations 119 

Relation of rocks to surface 120 

Protection of the soils 121 

Appendix C. — Report on the hydrography of the Southern Appalachians 123 

Physiographic features of the region 125 

The rainfall and run-off in this region 128 

Stream flow in the region and its measurement 135 

■ Value of these mountain streams for water-power purposes 137 

Appendix D. — Report on the climate of the Southern Appalachians 143 

Appendix E. — Report on the present status of the movement for the proposed 

Appalachian Forest Reserve 155 

Memorials and resolutions favoring the proposed Appalachian Forest 

Reserve 158 

Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club 158 

Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association 159 

Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement of 

Science 165 

Resolution of the American Forestry Association 165 

Resolution of National Board of Trade 165 

Resolutions passed by other boards of trade 165 

Preliminary report of the Secretary of Agriculture on the forests of the 

Southern Appalachian region, January 3, 1901 166 

Report on the creation of the Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve by 
the Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of 

Game, February 12, 1901 168 

Resolutions and acts by the legislatures of States whose territory extends 

into the region of the proposed forest reserve 172 

Virginia 172 

North Carolina ". 173 

Tennessee 174 

South Carolina 176 

Georgia 178 

The press and the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve 180 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 
Plate I. (a) Land erosion on the cleared slopes of the Southern Appa- 
lachian Mountains, (b) Flood destruction of an Appalachian 

mountain valley 14 

II. Relief map of the United States, showing location of the national 

forest reserves 14 

•III. (a) Valley of Virginia, (b) Piedmont Plateau in Virginia 16 

• IV. Relief maj) of the Southern Appalachian region, showing the dis- 

tribution of the mountains 16 

> V. Doe River Gorge, Tennessee 18 

/ VI. Panorama from Grandfather Mountain, typical of Appalachian 

' jNIountains 18 

VII. Grandfather Mountain, showing sharp, rugged peak surrounded 

by hard-wood forests 20 

vVIIl. (a) Bald of Big Yellow Mountain, (b) Welchs Bald in the 

Great Smoky Mountains 20 

1 IX, (a) The southern end of the Appalachian Mountains near Car- 

'" tersville, Ga. (b) A mountain valley, northern Georgia 22 

V X. Ccesars Head, South Carolina 22 

' XI. Whiteside Mountain, southeast profile 22 

■XII. Map of the Southern Appalachian region, showing forest area 

under consideration and hydrographic gaging stations 24 

XIII. An original Appalachian Mountain forest 24 

, XIV. Mixed hard- wood and pine forest 24 

• XV. Spruce forests at high elevations 24 

'XVI. Thetopsof the Black Mountains (colored) 26 

XVII. Panorama showing the unbroken forest of the Great Smoky 

Mountains 26 

XVIII. Forest clearings for farming on the Southern Appalachian Moun- 
tains 26 

'' XIX. Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, Ga 26 

■' XX. (a) Newly cleared mountain field planted in corn, (b) Recently 

cleared field i nipo verished and abandoned 26 

XXI. (a) Badly washed mountain field, (b) Mountain field com- 
pletely ruined , 28 

XXII. (a) Washing of grass-covered soil, top of Roan Mountain. 

(b) Washing of abandoned pasture field 28 

XXIII. (a) Unwashed valley lands surrounded by forest-covered moun- 
tains, (b) Badly washed mountain valley lands 28 

' XXIV. (a) Valley lands badly washed by recent floods and abandoned. 

(b) Valley lands completely ruined by floods 28 

9 



10 



ILLUSTEATIOJSrS. 



Plate XXV. Water-power development and cotton mills at Columbus, Ga.. 30 
XXVI. (a) Water power at Pelzer, S. C. ( b) Water power at Colum- 
bia, S. C 30 

XXVII. Cascades near head of Catawba River _ 30 

XXVIII. Tallulah Falls. Georgia 30 

XXIX. Forest-covered slopes of Linville Gorge 32 

XXX. Forest regulating the flow of streams 32 

y XXXI. (a) A spring on southern slope of Mount Mitchell, (b) A 

mountain brook 32 

XXXII. (a) Landslide stopped by the forest, north slope of Roan 
Mountain, (b) Small landslide at a spot where no large 

trees were growing 32 

'■' XXXIII. Large tree growing in mountain ravine 34 

XXXIV. Flood damages on Catawba River: (a) Soil removed and white 
sand spread over the surface, (b) Layer of sand spread over 

the soil by a flood 34 

XXXV. (a) Flood damages in West Virginia, (b) Debris from floods 

on Nolichucky River, East Tennessee 34 

XXXVI. (a) Flood damages to railway on Doe River, Tennessee, (b) 
Flood damages to railway on Nolichucky River, East Ten- 
nessee 34 

-/ XXXVII. Original forest, northwest slope of the Great Smoky Moun- 
tains 46 

' XXXVIII. (a) Slightly culled mixed forest, (b) White pine forest ex- 
cessively culled 46 

, XXXIX. (a) Wagon loaded with logs en route for the sawmill, (b) 

Wagon loaded with lumber en route for the railway station. 48 

^ XL. Spruce forest near summit of White Top, Virginia 48 

XLI. Forests on the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge, about Mount 

Toxaway 52 

^ XLII. Foi-ests on the walls of Nantahala Gorge 52 

V XLIII. Forests about the southeastern slopes of the Great Smoky 

Mountains, between cross ridges 52 

XLIV. Big chestnut trees, from the base of the Great Smoky Moun- 
tains 54 

XLV. Forests on the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains, 

Table Rock, South Carolina 54 

• XLVI. Damages from forest fires in killing trees and undergrowth 56 

XLVII. Damages from forest fires: (a) Injured base of pine tree. 

( b) Sprouts from base of a fire-killed oak 56 

'' XLVIII. (a) Granite knob from which the forest, and later the soil, has 
been removed, (b) Humus and undergrowth destroyed by 

fire; soil washed from rock by rain 56 

'' XLIX. (a) Destruction of forest on mountain ridges for pasturing pur- 
poses, (b) Corn planted between girdled trees on the 

mountain ridges 56 

L. (a) Mill in the mountains; waste in sawing, (b) Tops left 

among the trees in logging 62 

LI. (a) Sawing large timbei' at a small mill in the woods, (b) 

Binding poplar lumber for export 62 

" LII. Timber which should have been culled long ago 64 

■■■ LIII. Forest destruction along the snaking trail 64 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 

' Page. 

Plate LIV. Reproduction of hard-wood forest 64 

LV. Reproduction of white-pine forest 68 

LVI. Panorama of the Blue Ridge and southern end of the Black Moun- 
tains : 80 

■' LVII. Grandfather Mountain, with types of summits 88 

•^ LVIII. The Blue Ridge Plateau and Grandfather Mountain 114 

- LIX. Front of the Blue Ridge in Virginia 114 

LX. The narrows of the Little Tennessee River 116 

■ LXI. Balsam and Pisgah mountains 116 

^ LXII. (a) French Broad River, (b) Ocoee River 116 

■' LXIII. ElkFalls 116 

' LXIV. Forest-covered slope of Hawksbill 118 

•' LXV. West foothills of the Unakas and valley of East Tennessee 120 

< LXVI. Rock weathering and decay in the Southern Appalachians 122 

. LX VII. Land erosion in the Southern Appalachians 122 

' LXVIII. Yonahlossee road on Grandfather Mountain 122 

LXIX. (a) Rhododendron undergrowth holding the soil and the water. 

(b) Seams in the rock, facilitating the storage of water 126 

LXX. Whitewater Falls 126 

V LXXL Lower Cullasaja Falls 126 

LXXIL Linville Gorge 128 

- LXXIIl. Swannanoa River 128 

■ LXXIV. (a) Sawmill wrecked by flood, (b) Logs lost by breaking of 

boom 130 

• LXXV. (a) Highway bridge washed away by floods, (b) Pulslic road 

ruined by floods 130 

•J LXXVI. (a) Flood damages to settlements, (b) Flood damages to railroad 

and mining settlements 130 

' LXXVIL Toccoa Falls, Georgia 130 

LXX VIII. Improved water power, Augusta, Ga 138 



EEPOET 

ON THE 



FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN 
APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION. 



To the President: 

An interest in pi'actical forestry, notable and commend- 
able, has grown up among the American people during the 
past few j^ears. There is an evident determination that 
our countrjr shall profit from its own and the experience 
of other countries by beginning the preservation of our 
forest remnants before it is altogether too late. 

The most important practical outcome of this awakening 
has been the setting aside by the Government, out of the 
public domain, in the several Western States and Terri- 
tories, of some 70,000 square miles of forest-covered lands 
about the mountains in these regions, to protect the streams 
and perpetuate the timber supplies. A more recent result 
is the movement, which has met with the general approval 
of business and scientific organizations and the unanimous 
support of the press, toward the preservation by the Gov- 
ernment of the hard-wood forests on the slopes of the 
Southern Appalachian Mountains. 

The proposal that the Government shall protect these 
Appalachian forests by purchasing the lands and making 
of them a great national forest reserve was first brought 
directly to the attention of Congress in January, 1900, 
when a memorial to that efl:ect was presented by the Appa- 
lachian Mountain Club of New England and the Appala- 
chian National Park Association of the South Atlantic 
States. In response to this memorial and in I'ecognition 
of the importance of the movement, the act making the 
appropriation for the Department of Agriculture for the 
fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provided that a "sum 
not to exceed 15,000 may, in the discretion of the Secre- 
tary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the forest con- 
ditions in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region of 
western North Carolina and adjacent States." 

13 



14 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



NATURE AND EXTENT OF THIS INVESTIGATION. 

Acting under this authority I conducted such an investi- 
gation during the field season of 1900, and continued it 
again during the present year. The conclusions to which 
the results of this investigation have led me will be found 
at the end of this report (p. 38). 
Departments of gy ^he liberal Cooperation of the Department of the 

Agriculture and j l it 

of the Interior Xnterior, through the United States Geological Survey, I 

cooperate in the ^ & g j •> 

investigation, -^y^s enabled to make these investigations much broader and 
more thorovigh than would otherwise have been possible. 
The Geological Survey, in timely recognition of tlae impor- 
tance of this movement, has, during the past two years, 
studied the topographic features and the water supplies of 
the region in relation to its forest development, and has also" 
cooperated in the examination of the forests themselves. 
The investigations along the several lines have been par- 
ticipated in bjr the best men available in the Government 
service. I have myself twice visited this region, and have 
seen at first hand the desti'uction of the forests and the 
consequent enormous damage by floods; have examined 
some of its largest mountain masses, and have climbed its 
highest peak. The conclusions reached from this personal 
experience, as well as from the extensive expert investi- 
gations just mentioned, will be found briefly summarized 
at another place in this report (p. 38). 

invest'i'^ation"^*^ ^^^ experts in charge of this work examined not only 
the forests and the general forest conditions as the}^ exist 
to-day, but also the causes which have led up to these con- 
ditions and the possibility of improving them either with 
or without Government ownership and supervision. They 
studied the influences of the forests on the preservation of 
the streams and soils of these mountains and on the 
preservation of the water powers and the farm lands along 
these streams, both within the mountain areas and across 
the bordering lowlands. In particular the region was 
studied as to its relative adaptabilit}^ to future develop- 
ment along the lines of practical forestrj' and practical 
agriculture. 
Forest and The forests were carefully mapped as to their distri- 

agricultural eon- . n i . n i i • • i ii 

ditions. bution and densitj^ and the relative proportion or the 

forest-covered and cleared lands. The investigation also 
included a study of the general character and distribution 
of all the available species of trees and shrubs of the 



Senate Doc. No. 84 



Plate I. 




1^1 LAND EROSION ON THE CLEARED SLOPES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS, (titt pp. 26--1S.I 

These steep lands have been cleared, cultivated, abandoned, and ruined, all in a few years. Their reforestalion will 

soon be impossible. 




(■B) FLOOD DESTRUCTION OF AN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN VALLEY. (See pp. 32, 130.) 

The floods have "washed away the farm and the home, leaving only the hillside barn. The aggregate damages 
from floods along these Southern Appalachian streams from April', 1901, to April, 1902. reached the large sum of 
Sl.8.000.000. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 15 

region, the stand of timber, the extent to which the timbei" 
has been and is now being cut or damaged by fire, the 
nature of the present holdings, and the prices at which 
these lands can be purchased. The agricultural investiga- 
tion included the stud}^ of the cleared lands, methods of 
their clearing, the crops which they J'ield, and the extent 
to which these lands deteriorate by erosion and bj^ the leach- 
ing out of their fertilitj' both on the mountain slopes and 
in the valle3's. 

The officers of the Geological Survej^ meanwhile made 
a careful study of the quantity' of water flowing out through 
the various streams having their sources in this region, 
and of the effect of forest clearings on the regularity of 
their flow at different seasons. Fiftj'-four regular stations 
were maintained, covering everv large stream which rises 
in these mountains. These streams flow through West investigation 
Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina," es reams. 
Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, and rank among the 
important rivers of the country. At each station daily 
records of stream heights were kept, and measurements 
of the volume of flow were made from time to time. In 
addition to this, more than 1,000 miscellaneous gagings 
were made on the tributaries of the James, Roanoke, 
Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Savannah, Chattahoochee, Coosa, 
Hiwassee, Tennessee, French Broad, Nolichucky , Watauga, 
Holston, and New (Kanawha) rivers. (See PI. XII). 

A brief preliminary report embodying the more salient 
results of this investigation during the year 1900 was sent 
to Congress by the President in January, 1901. It was 
accomjianied by a letter from President McKinW com- 
mendatorj" of the plan for an Appalachian forest reserve 
here suggested anew. The present report will be found to Mature of tws 

■ , . , . report. 

contain the results of the investigations carried on during 
the past two years, together with some conclusions based 
upon them. The general statement is followed by a series 
of supplemental papers, each containing a moi'e detailed 
account of the results of the examinations and inquiries 
along some one single line. ' 

The region examined during this investigation embraces The region ex- 
that part of the Appalachian Mountain system which begins 
in southern Virginia and includes portions of that State, of 
southeastern West Virginia, western North Carolina, east- ' 
ern Tennessee, northwestern South Carolina, and northern 
Georgia, and especially that portion of this region usually 



16 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

, designated as the Southern Appalachian Mountains. Its 
general character and relations can be more easily de- 
scribed and better understood after a brief discussion of 
the Apj)alachian region as a whole. 

THE APPALACHIAN REGION. 

The map accompanying this report (PI. 11) shows the 
Appalachian Mountain sj^stem extending along the eastern 
portion of the continent from New York to Alabama, for 
a distance of 1,000 miles, and having a maximum width 
approaching 150 miles. These Appalachians constitute, not 
a single ridge or chain, but a zone or belt of mountains, 
the maximum development of which is reached south- 

MounteSis'^'"" southwest of Washington. Along the southeastern front, 
the Blue Ridge Mountains in New Jersey and Pennsylvania 
are rather poorlj' defined, and reach an elevation in the lat- 
ter State, at South Mountain, of about 2,000 feet. South- 
southwestward they become a more prominent and regular 
feature in the landscape, the highest peaks reaching an 
elevation of a little more than 4,000 feet in Virginia (see 
PL XII), and about 6,000 feet in North Carolina. Along 
the northwestern front of this belt the Allegheny Moun- 
tains, starting with the Catskills in New Yoi'k, cross Penn- 
sylvania and Marjdand is a series of well-defined parallel 
ridges, with a general elevation of 2,000 feet. The maxi- 
mum development of the Alleghenies, however, is reached 
along the line between Virginia, West Virginia, and Ken- 
tuck3% where the elevations range from 3,000 feet to nearly 
4,500 feet above the sea. Southward from this point they 
become less and less prominent, rising but little above the 
adjacent plateau surface. 

Between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Alleghenies 
lies a great mountain valley, or succession of valleys, sep- 
arated laterally by more or less subordinate ridges, parallel 
to the general mountain courses, and with their ends sep- 
arated by lovr divides. This is called bj' the geographers 

v^Fe^'"''^^''" the Great Appalachian Valley. The more or less separate 
vallej's have local names, such as the Lehigh, Lebanon, and 
Cumberland valleys, in Pennsylvania; the Shenandoah, or 
Valley of Virginia (see PI. Ill a), and the Valley of East 
Tennessee. (See PI. LXV.) The floor of this great val- 
le3^ region has an elevation above the sea of from less than 
500 to 800 feet in Pennsvlvania, and thence, like the moun- 
tains, rises southward to its maximum elevation of about 
1,700 feet in southwest Virginia. (PI. III.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate III. 




l.-ll VALLEY OF VIRGINIA. (Seep. ]().) 

This is a part of tlie great Appalaeliian Valley lying west of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. 




(B) PIEDMONT PLATEAU IN VIRGINIA. (Seep. 17.) 
This plateau region lies east and south of the Appalacaiian mountains from Virginia into Alabama. 



SENATE DOC. No 84 FIFTr-SEVENTH CONGRESS. FIRST SESSION 



RELIEF MAP 

OF THK 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION 

Showing Uie dislribuiion of Uie mountains 



Sc nle 874 360 



MOUNTAIN PEAKS AND THEIR ALTITUDES IN FEtT 







■fS i^i . - Sh..i.». «k 



"^^95 



*\ ■ 



-St- 5-+^^ 

iAi..-*iii7K) \ 








iji" ■" 



^■- 



V 



.>" 



2$:^' 




K'.^^ 



y\ 



.._../ ; y-- 



• \^ 







( ,.t„ifi 






^,^,- 



,**'^^ 



<?? 



<i. 









y 



. p 




t ^^' 



*X-s 



K, 



t \ 



/J^'-' 






o„ 



^.?r^ 







1^. 



XL, 




,V 



/ 



ir^ 



iX 




>«gl,l„Si™, . 




A 



Al 



it> 



^., 




1/ 



^..1, 



Vt-/ 



^ 



S>> 



ly- 



J',. ^1^. 


^-5. -/ 


j/i53^' '^ 


^4[( 


^y"?- -^ 


{ 1,!^ 


><^' , 


1 


",1 . A y^tN.. 


I I T" '■"' 



l>(,l'MlItA 



\ 



'^^^ 


^ 


\f" Wi 


y'-^-^ _i 




—v 


^ V 


^ 


y 


^i^ 


?. 


\ 


^^^^^4^ 




''y><!J\/r 


T \ 


/ 


'\ '■ A- 






1 ..i-iiim;.- / V 



Ol-' 



SOUTHERN APPAIiACHIAN REGION. 17 



THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

This general Appalachian system is usually separated 
into its northern and southern divisions in southern Vir- 
ginia by a line drawn nearly eastward from the most east- 
erlj' point of Kentuckj-, and where the New or Kanawha 
River breaks across the Appalachian Valle^^ and the AUe- 
ghenies. New River rises on the Blue Ridge in North 
Carolina, flows northward and then westward through the 
Ohio into the Mississippi drainage. It thus violates the 
rule established by the James, the Potomac, the Susque-t„!^enthem)rth- 
hauna, and the Delaware rivers, to the north, of rising ^''pp'^°ad5'ii*ns!™ 
about the AUeghenies and breaking eastward across the 
Blue Ridge into the Atlantic drainage; and it here estab- 
lishes a new rule that controls the drainage of the larger 
mountain streams to the south, which, following its exam- 
ple, rise on the western slopes of the Blue Ridge and flow 
across the mountain region to the northwestward and into 
the Mississippi drainage through the Tennessee. To the 
southwest of this line which separates the two S3'stems of 
drainage lie the Southern Appalachians. 

Referring again to the maps (Pis. IV and XII), it will 
be seen that bordering these mountains on the east and 
south in Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alalmnia, 
is a region which is termed by the geographers the Pied- 
mont Plateau. From the base of the mountains, where it 
has an elevation of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet, the hilly, pThe^^i'^'imont 

undulating surface of the plateau (see PI. Ill 5) slopes 
gently seaward for a distance of from 100 to 150 miles, to 
where these hills give place to the sandj' plains of the 
coast region. This Piedmont Plateau represents the finest 
agricultural and manufacturing portions of these States. 
Across its surface wind the rivers, fed b}' mountain streams, 
whose waters furnish power for large and rapidly grow- 
ing manufacturing interests, and whose bordering lands 
are among the most pi'oductive in the region. The future 
of these water powers and of these bordering lands depends 
upon the regularity of the mountain streams, and these 
in turn depend upon the preservation of the mountain 
forests. 

To the west of these mountains lies the Valley of EastTennel4f ^""^ 
Tennessee, which constitutes the southern portion of the 
great Appalachian Valley. It has .an elevation of 1,700 
feet in southwestern Virginia and 1.000 feet at Knox- 

S. Doc. 84 2 



18 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

ville, from which point it extends south westward across 
portions of Georgia and Alabama. Into and through this 
valle}^ drains the larger portion of the water which leaves 
the mountain region. Along the upper reaches of these 
streams are numerous valuable water powers, and along 
their lower courses through the valley are some of the 
finest farming lands in Tennessee. To the west of this 
valley lie the southern remnants of the AUeghenj^ Moun- 
tains and the better defined Cumberland Plateau. 

Between this great vallej' on the west and the Piedmont 
Plateau on the east and south are the Southern Appala- 
chian Mountains, with which this report has especially to 
deal. 

THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. 

The accompanying maps (Pis. IV and XII), show that the 
Blue Ridge, as it crosses Virginia southward, increases and 
holds its prominence and its individual it3^ As it passes 
into North Carolina it enlarges both verticallj^ and later- 
ally, widening out into a complex zone or belt of moun- 
tains, with a maximum width of about TO miles in western 
North Carolina and east Tennessee, and contracting again 
toward its southern end. These mountains show none of 
the regularity exhibited by the Northern Appalachians, 
but, on the other hand, are composed of massive ranges 
and cross ridges and more or less isolated mountains, often 
with rounded, dome-like tops (see PI. VIII), in striking- 
contrast with the sharp, regular, parallel, rocky ridges of 
the more northern Alleghenies. 
The Blue Alonsf the Southeastern margin of this southern moun 

Eidge and the ^ " 

unaka Moun- tain belt is the Blue Ridge proper, which, as it crosses 
North Carolina, is a fairlv well-defined mountain range, 
standing more than 3,000 feet above the sea and rising in 
four peaks to more than 6,000 feet, and in one — the Grand- 
father — to practically 6,000 feet. Bordering this region 
on the northwest is a mountain range — the Unakas — 
somewhat higher, and in its southern portion more mas- 
sive, but less continuous, than the Blue Ridge; less con- 
tinuous for the reason that its course is cut across by half 
a dozen rivers, which rise on the Blue Ridge on the east, 
flow across this intervening mountain region, and cut 
through the Unakas in wild, deep gorges. (See PI. V.) 
Between these river • gorges the segments of the Unakas 
are known by such local names as the Iron Mountains, 
Bald Mountains, and Great Smoky mountains. In southern 



Senate Doc, No. 84. 



Plate V. 




DOE RIVER GORGE, TENNESSEE. (Seep. IS.J 
The forest.? on the .5teep slopes of this beautiful gorge are being destroyed by the fire and the axe. 



Little Yellow Mountain. 



Plate Vi, Part 1. 

Roan Mountain. 




S»niU Doc. No. U 



MIrirk Moiii,i,.iii. r|,,.| |m r.'|.r.>.|ii,.||,„i 



^["■"f T•■l■«^ ' 



PL«Tt VI, Part 1. 

Lt.mli M..iiiilnl. 




■-JHAM.\ i-^fsl ,\,\io SUUTH 



..T r„„,., o„..o...„,„ „„„,,,„^ ,,„,.^ ^„^^^^^^ ..P.,..c„.. „o„,,.„3, ,,,„ 




-4DFATHER MOUNTAIN : TYPICAL SO 



Pl*te VI, Part 2. 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 19 

Virginia the Unakas approach the Blue Ridge and prac- 
ticallj' merge with the latter into one iri'egular mountain 
range; southward, the two diverge. The Unaka range 
has 18 peaks rising above 5,000 feet, and 8 of these above 
6,000 feet. The Roan, toward its northern end, Mount 
Guyot and Clingman's Dome, farther south in the Great 
Smoky Mountains, reach altitudes, respectively, of 6,313, 
6,636, and 6,619 feet. 

Southwest of the North Carolina line these bordering 
mountain chains lose both in elevation and regularity. In 
northern Georgia thej" break up into several minor ridges, 
diminishing in size as they extend southwestward, sepa- 
rated b}' widening, irregular valleys. Near Cartersville, o/^'e^AppSa- 
Ga., between the two principal tributaries of the Coosa '''"'^"^• 
River, the Southern Appalachians merge into the Pied- 
mont Plateau, with its low, isolated hills and ridges, rem- 
nants of former mountains. (See Pis. IX a and XLV.) 
They rise again, however, in eastern central Alabama into 
the short, irregular ridge of the Talladega Mountains, 
which reach an elevation of 2,500 feet. The slopes of 
these ridges in north Georgia are still largely forest cov- 
ered, and along them are the countless springs which, 
with notable constancy, feed the great rivers of that State 
and Alabama. The scenery of much of this region is 
exceedingly picturesque, and its attractiveness is increased 
by the many cascades and waterfalls along the courses of 
these mountain streams, such as Tallulah Falls (see PI. 
XXVIII), with a descent of 335 feet, and the Dukes Creek, 
Minnehaha, and Ruby falls, with each a descent of nearly 
300 f^et in short distances. 

Extending out from the two great irregular mountain 
borders, the Blue Ridge and the Unakas, into the elevated 
region between them, and connecting them in places, are 
a series of more or less interrupted cross ridges, which jjj™^^™*|^j^^sea 
have altitudes comparable to, and in one case (the Black 
Mountains) greater than, those of either the Blue Ridge 
or the Unakas. And these interior ridges are separated 
by high, but deep and generally nari'ow, irregular valle3's. 

Standing on any of these elevated mountains, one maj^ 
see stretching out in either of several directions an endless 
succession of mountain ridges and mountain peaks. A 
remarkable succession of these ridges and peaks is seen 
from the Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, looking 
southwest, as shown in the accompanying panoramic view 
(PI. VI). Plundreds of such vistas, from as many peaks, 



20 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

open out before the traveler through this region. In 
every direction the splendid hard-wood fores-ts cover and 
protect the mountain slopes and the countless springs of 
water which flow from them as the sources of great rivers. 
There is but one discordant fact — the calamitous destruction 
of the forests on these mountain slopes. 

Some of these ridg-es, like the Black Mountains, are short, 
but high and massive and terminate abruptly. Others ai-e 
longer and lower and slope gradually'- down to the adjacent 
A'alley or rise from a lower gap to another still higher lidge. 
All are more or less irregular both in their courses and 
their elevation. Most of them have peaks rising from 
their tops; but not a few have faii'ly uniform crests. (See 

peaSndVidges^ PI- XVII.) Some of these peaks, like the Grandfather 
(PL VII), are sharp, rugged, and rockj^; others, like the 
Roan or the "Balds" (PI. Villa), are rounded domes 
whose tops are covered only with g-rass and I'hododendron, 
while still others, equally tall and massive, like the Blacks 
and the Great Smokies, are heavity forest covered to the 
summit. (See PI. VIII 5.) 

The haziness of the atmosphere, which has found expres- 
sion in the names "Blue Eidge" and "Smoky Mountain," 
often limits the distance of distinct vision, but it combines 
with the forest cover to soften the details and to render 
this Southern Apj^alachian landscape attractive bej^ond 
comparison. This succession of ridges and peaks, seen 
through it from an eminence, rising one above and beyond 

these mountain's^ f^iiother for 50 or 100 miles or more, impresses upon the 
observer in a manner not to be forgotten the vastness of 
this region of mountains. It has 46 peaks, a mile or more 
apart, and 41 miles of dividing ridges, which rise above 
6,000 feet; 288 additional peaks and 300 miles of divide 
rise more than 5,000 feet above the sea. These are not 
onl\^ the greatest masses of mountains east of the Rockies; 
they are the highest mountains covered with hard-wood 
forests in America. 

tures^'^"' ^''^' This region, thus unicjue in its position, in its mountain 
features, in its forests, and in its climate, stands grandly 
out as the greatest physiographic feature in the eastei'n 
half of the continent. (See Pis. II and VI.) 

ieys°""*'^"^"' Between these groups of mountains and far below them, 
though still at an elevation of 2,000 feet or more above 
the sea, are the numerous narrow valleys of this region. 
Thej' border the numberless streams and ai'e generally 
more extensive nearer the sources of these streams, and 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate VII. 



B *■ 



BS 



ri 


T 




O 


a-a 


* 


prfp 


p: 










P P- 


05 


o ^ 


X 








3 
JO 

3) 

C 


F:::'ej- 





BO. 



£- n 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate VIII. 




(-il "BALD" OF BIG YELLOW MOUNTAIN, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. C. (See pp. 18, 20.) 
The.'ie bald mountain tops arc i-overed with grass, the tree line often being fairly sharp. ;See also PI. XXIIo.) 




(£) A COMMON TYPE OF SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN PEAK IN THE uREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (Seep.'JO.) 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 21 

hence nearer to the Bhie Ridgfe than to the Unakas. (PI. 
IX.) As a rule, they vary in width from a few hundred 
feet to a.s many yards. Some of the most notable of these 
vallej's. reaching- a width of 2 to .5 miles in places, are 
those on New River in Virginia, on the French Broad 
above Asheville, on the Tennessee River in southwestern 
North Carolina, and about the headwater.s of the Coosa 
and other rivers in Georgia. As these streams approach 
and cu* through the mountain borders of this region they 
riHi In deep gorges, the full width of which is often occu- 
pied by the streams. (See PI. XXIX.) 

The slopes of these mountains vary considerably'' in their 
steepness. The northwestern slopes of the Bhie Ridge 
are usually gentle and in many places cleared. The south- 
eastern slopes are generally much steeper and usuallj^ 
forest covered. In a few places these southeastern slopes 
ai-e rocky and precipitous. Especiall3' is this the case 
along the South Carolina border, as seen in Caesars Head, 
Whiteside, and Table Rock mountains (see Pis. X, XI, 
and XLV), where the bare rock walls rise 600 to 1,000 ^jSte^PJis^j^^^^o^f 
feet in height. The slopes of the Unakas, like those oi''^°P^^- 
manv of the interior ridges, are fairly steep on both sides, 
ranging generall}' from 20 to 50 degTees. About the inte- 
rior ridges there is still greater variation. Some of the 
rock}' faces are precipitous, while elsewhere the slopes 
are gentle, ranging from 5 to 20 degrees. But taking the 
mountains and the vallej's together, the land surface with 
a slope of less than 10 degrees is not more than 10 per 
cent of the whole. 

THE FORESTS. 

It is the forest covering of these great mountain slopes — 
a covering that should never be removed — about which 
interest centers in the present investigation. The re- 
sults of this examination during the past two j'ears are 
given at length in a paper published as Appendix A (p. 41). 
They are stated separate!}- for each of the larger river su|fg*°^the\'^s- 
basins, following a somewhat general discussion of the ''™°''*''°°' 
forest conditions in the region as thej' exist to-day and 
of how the forests may be economical!}- protected and im- 
proved under Government control. 

These forests have been carefully studied and classified, 
and over much the larger portion of the area their density 
and distribution have been indicated on the excellent topo- 
graphic maps furnished for this jjurpose by the Depart- ^o^^st maps. 



22 SOUTHERK APPALACHIAN REGION. 

ment of the Interior. The length of time required for 
engraving- these detailed forest maps makes it impossible 
to issue them as a part of the present report, but copies 
of them in manuscript form are meanwhile available for 
examination at the Department of Agriculture and the 
Geological Survey. The distribution of these forests and 
the approximate relative proportion of the forest-covered 
and the cleared lands are indicated by the generalized map 
(PI. XII). The scattered cleared fields on the mountain 
slopes are so small that it is impossible to indicate them 
on a map of this scale, and hence only the larger clearings, 
mainl}^ those along the valleys, are shov^n. 

Considering the forests of the region as a whole, there 
is a striking uniformity about their general features, espe- 
cially in the valleys and along the lower slopes, and j^et 
ever3'where there is variety. This fact is well illustrated 
b}^ the list (on p. 93) of 137 species of ti-ees and a still longer 
list of shrubs growing in this mountain region. 

The forests on the southeasterly slopes are usually less 

striking, both in size of trees and density of growth, than 

those on the northwest, and they are usuallj' more damaged 

bj' forest fires, because the slopes are steeper and ai'e kept 

Variations in di'ier bv their more direct exposure to the sun. The 

forests on south- .,,*.. , , i 

ernaud northern neighbormg lorests On the northern and western slopes 
and in the westerty facing coves exhibit a greater variety 
of vegetation, a denser growth, and finer specimens of 
individual trees, because thej' have not only greater mois- 
ture, but greater depth and fertilit^^ of soil. Both are pro- 
tected hy the humus which covers the surface and which 
contributes directh' to the luxuriance of this growth. It 
is in such situations that we find the best examples of the 
superb hard-wood forests which abound in this region — the 
-finest on the continent. (See PL XIII.) 
xo7esS^'dSI to ^"* ^^^ greatest variations in these mountain forests 
elevation. ^^.q observed in connection with the differences in eleva- 

tion. Thus along the southern foothills of the Appala- 
chians in Georgia one finds occasionallj^ scattered colonies 
^ of the loblolly and long-leaf pines, trees which are charac- 

teristic of the South Atlantic and Gulf coast region, inter- 
mingling with the tjqjical hard-wood forests of the Pied- 
mont Plateau and of the lower mountain slopes. (See PI. 
XIV.) At the eastern foot of the Blue Ridge, in North 
Carolina, the typical flora of the Piedmont Plateau abounds, 
and follows up the river gorges into the mountain val- 
lej's, where it associates with more characteristicallj- Ap- 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate IX a. 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate IX B. 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate X 




FhotoKraplifil \>y Limisiiy, ) 



C/ESARS HEAD, SOUTH CAROLINA. (Seep. 21.) 

The fires aiul tlie axe are destroying the forest growth on these steep, rocky inniinlain sides. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XI. 




(Photographed by Seadin.) 
WHITESIDE MOUNTAIN, SOUTHEAST PROFILE, NORTH CAROLINA. (See p. 21.) 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 23 

palachian species. Thence up to the tops of the higher 
pealis there is a constant succession of changes — an inter- 
mingling and overlapping of the lower species with those 
which belong to greater elevations or more northern 
latitudes. 

Thus in ascending any of the higher mountains, as jjJ^^^^j'^jlJj^^g'Jj" 
Mount Mitchell, which, with its elevation of 6,711 feet, is 
the loftiest of them all, one ma}^ penetrate, in the rich and 
fertile coves about its base, a forest of oaks, hickories, 
maples, chestnuts, and tulip poplars, some of them large 
enough to be suggestive of the giant trees on the Pacific 
coast. (See PI. XLIV.) Higher up one rides through 
forests of great hemlocks, chestnut oaks, beeches, and 
birches, and higher yet through groves of spruce and 
balsam. Covering the soil between these trees is a spongy 
mass of humus sometimes a foot and more in thickness, 
and over this in turn a luxuriant growth of shrubs and 
flowers and ferns. At last, as the top is reached, even 
the balsams become dwarfed, and there give place largely 
to clusters of rhododendron and patches of grass fringed 
with flowers, many of them such as are commonly seen 
about the hills and valleys of New England and southern 
Canada. 

In such an ascent one passes thi'ough, as it were, the wfufeiCTation^ 
" changing of the seasons. Half wa}' up the slopes one may 
see, with fruit just ripening, the shrubs and plants the 
matured fruit of which was seen two or three weeks before 
on the Piedmont Plateau, 3,000 feet below; while 3,000 
feet higher up the same species have now just opened wide 
their flowers. Fully a month divides the seasons above and 
below, separated by this nearly 6,000 feet of altitude. 

Remote from the railroads the forest on these moun- General forest 
tains is generally unbroken from the tops of ridge and 
peak down to the brook in the valley below, and to-day it is 
in much the .same condition as for centuries past. (See PI. 
XVII.) In the more settled portions of the region, how- 
ever, a difl'erent picture presents itself. Along the nar- 
row mountain valleys are the cultivated fields about the 
settlements, where thev ought to be. When the vallevs , unwise forest 

" * clearings for ag- 

were practically all cleared the increasing demands for "culture. 
lands to cultivate led to clearings .successively higher and 
higher up the mountain slopes, with a pitch of '20 and 30 
and even -10 degrees. From some of the peaks one may 
count these cleared mountain-side patches bj^ the score. 
They have multiplied the more rapidly because their fer- 



24 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

tility is short lived, limited to two, three, or five crops at 
most. The^' are cleared, cultivated, and abandoned in 
rapid succession. Out of twent}' such cleared fields, per- 
haps two or three are in corn, planted between the recently 
girdled trees; one or two ma}- be in grain; two or four in 
grass, and the remainder — more than half of them — in 
various stages of abandonment and ruin, perhaps even 
before the deadened trees have fallen to the ground. (See 
PL XVIII.) 
Lumberingop- xhe lumberman attacked this forest several decades ago 

eratious. . . i ,. i j 

when he began to penetrate it m search of the rarer and 
more valuable trees, such as the walnut and cherry. Later, 
as the railroads entered the region to some extent, he added 
to his list of trees for cutting the mountain birch, locust, 
and tulip poplar, and successively other valuable species. 
During the past few years he has cut everything merchant- 
able. He is now beginning to extend his operations to 
considerable distances beyond the main lines of transpor- 
tation by the construction of tramways and even cheap, 
short railways. Meanwhile his search for the more valu- 
able trees has extended in advance to most of the more 
remote mountain coves, 
lumbering op°e? ^^ these operations there has naturally been no thought 
atious. -Jqj. ^jjg future. Trees have been cut so as to fall along 

^ the line of least resistance regardless of what they crush. 
Their tops and branches, instead of being piled in such 
way and burned at such time as would do the least harm, 
are left scattered among the adjacent growth to burn when 
driest, and thus destroy or injure everything within reach. 
The home and permanent interests of the lumberman are 
generally in another State or region, and his interest in 
these mountains begins and ends with the hope of profit. 
There is, however, no evidence that the native lumberman 
has in the past exhibited anj' different spirit. 
work^ of" forest Forest fires have been one of the great curses of this 
^^^- country. From the days of Indian occupation down to 

the present time these Appalachian Mountain forests have 
been swept through by fires. Some of these have preceded 
the lumberman, others have accompanied him, and still 
others have followed in his wake, and the last have been 
far more destructive because of the tops and other rubbish 
which he has left behind him scattered among the remain- 
ing growth. (See PI. L b). The aggregate damage from 
these fires is great. Over some limited areas they have 
entirely destroyed the forests. Everywhere on the south 



I 



SCNAie DOC Ho 84 FIf TY-SEVEWTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION 



MAP OV Till': 

SOITIIHHX A!M»ALA('HIAX HKCIIOX 

Showing forest area uii(l(-'rf-oiiHi(l<*f'a(ion and gu^inj^ stations 
oCthc (liviHioii oriiydrogniphy I' S. Geological Sun'e\' 

Scale 1fir4.ii&T 



OugtniJ HtiiUoiiH inr'-it 
Fort*»i amuH iiiijn'i'i 

Th* ■hki'iwv (if itw ^jwiirulur iliniaiim inilirstvthv ■fa**rr« 
(if rb rri*!*, &«*•)■ li>vin^la*i>ruinuw4ut(ltIt*irdi«>nl>uUon 




Senate Doc, No. 84. 



Plate XIII. 




1 Photographed by ScadinO 
AN ORIGINAL SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FOREST, TRANSYLVANIA COUNTY, N. C. (.See pp. 21-23, 45.) 



Senate Doc. No, 84. 



Plate XIV. 





^^jiMMsi^i 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XV. 




SPRUCE FORESTS AT HIGH ELEVATIONS; ON WHITETOP MOUNTAIN, VIRQINdA, (See pp. 23. 47.) 

Seedlings of this black spruce abound in the moss under the trees. These and the humus and the 
roots hold the soils and help store the rains. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 25 

ward slopes the damages have exceeded those on slopes 
toward the north or west. Trees have been burned near 
the roots, making their bases defective (see PI. XLVll); 
the 3"oung growth has been burned down (see PI. XLVI); 
the grasses and other wild foi'age plants have been tem- 
porarily exterminated, so that instead of pasturage being 
improved, as some have believed it would be, in the end 
it has been seriously damaged. This destruction of the . injuries resuit- 

^ o ^ ing from tlie 

humus has always resulted seriously both to the forests burning of the 

-' •' humus. 

and to the soils. In some cases, where the forests covering 
the steep, rocky slopes were thin, the loss of the humus 
has resulted in the washing and leaching away of the soils 
to such an extent as to destroy the forests entirely; and 
in all cases where the humus is thus removed the work of 
land erosion among the trees goes on as surely as though 
the forest itself were gone, though of course the process is 
far less rapid. Furthermore, the storage of water (in soils 
from which this humus has been removed) is far less perfect 
than in the original perfect forest. 

The rapid rate at which these lumbering operations have 
extended during the past few years and the still more 
rapid rate at which thej^ are being extended at the present 
time, considered in connection with the destructive work 
of the fires and the clearing for agriculture, indicates that 
within less than a decade every mountain cove will have 
been invaded and robbed of its finest timber, and the last 
of the remnants of these grand primeval Appalachian 
forests will have been destroyed. Hence the very possi- 
bility of securing a forest reserve such as now contem- 
plated is a possibility of the present, not of the future. 
This great activitj^ indicates, furthermore, in the most 
striking way possible, the growing anxietj' as to the future 
supply of hard-wood timber. And indeed the time is now imperative 
at hand when the great interests involved make it impera- est pouey. 
five that the Government take hold of this problem and 
inaugurate here in these great broad-leaved forests of the 
East a new conservative forest policy, as it is already 
doing for the pine forests of the West. 

FOKEST CLEARING AND AGBICULTUKE IN THE 
SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 

Ordinary farming on these mountain slopes can not 
exist permanently and should nev^er exist at all. As stated 
above, not more than 10 per cent of the land of this 
region has a surface slope of less than 10 degrees (approxi- 



short lived in its ^q jg„ vears and another must be cleared to take its place. 

. Ill a- "^ -^ 

nent in tiie re- ^ foj-gg^ -j^hich is the growth of Several centuries perishes 



26 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

mately 2 feet in 10), while 24 per cent (see PI. XII) 
of it has been cleared. In this region land with slopes 
exceeding this can not be successfully cultivated for any 
considerable time, because its surface is rapidlj!- washed 
into the rivers below by the heavy rains, and the same 
agency rapidly leaches out and carries to the sea its more 
soluble and fertile ingredients. The valley lands have 
already been largely cleared, and the farmers are now 
following up the mountain slopes. In many cases their 
cleared patches have well nigh reached the mountain sum- 
mits. This process is going on with greater rapidity, 
because each short-lived hillside field must soon be aban- 
doned. The underbrush is destroyed, the trees are girdled, 
and for one, two, or three years such a field is planted in 
corn, then a 3^ear in grain, then one or two 3^earsin grass; 
then the grass gives place to weeds, and the weeds to gul- 
lies. (See Pis. XX and XXI.) 
Agriculture on gudj ^ field has usuallv passcd through its cvole in five 

mountain slopes .J- & . 

short lived in it 
benefits; perma 
nent in the re 
suiting injuries. 

in less than a decade; a soil which is the accumulation or 
a thousand j^ears has been cleared, cultivated, abandoned, 
and is on the downward road to the sea within less than a 
decade. Such is the brief life history of many thousands 
of small mountain fields in this Southern Appalachian 
region. But even the native farmer is beginning to real- 
ize that the clearing of these mountain slopes is producing 
floods that wash away the valley farms, and that the time 
must come when he will have successively cleared and 
destroved all his available mountain land. (See PI. 

xxxiv). 

Some serious Fortunately the intelligence of the country is awaken- 

results from this . , , , , , x- n "^^ j_i * i 

forest clearing, mg to other and larger results that are lollowing tnis pol- 
icy. The soil thus removed ma_v stop long enough on its 
way to the sea to silt up the streams as they cross the low- 
lands or may fill up the harbors as the streams reach the 
coast. Every acre of mountain slope thus cleared is a step 
in the more rapid destruction of the forests, of the soils, of 
the rivers, and of the "eternal mountains" themselves — 
the destruction of conditions which the combined wealth, 
intelligence, and time of man can not restore in a region 
which now possesses infinite possibilities for the benefit 
of the whole nation. 




N COUNTY. N. C. 




PLiTE XVII. 









'•■•- -n 









r- Y 



!• kt iiita M '- ''•^^^ ' 



">>.* ,S..,W,.„ r„c „Me„OKtN F^.ST Of ,„. o„E.r SMOKV MOUNT, 



INS: FROM ANDREWS BALD " 



LD." SWAIN COUNTY, N. C. <S<-<- !■[•, il. .'C!. ) 




Senate Doc, No, 84. 



Plate XVIII. 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XIX. 



„ o 

c m 

p O 

< c 







Senate Ore. No, 84, 



Plate XX. 




(-1) NEWLY CLEARED MOUNTAIN FIELD PLANTED IN CORN, RAPIDLY WASHING AWAY. (See pp. 
These steep fields will be ruined and abandoned in less than a decade. 



2G-2S.) 




(i') RECENTLY CLEARED FIELD IMPOVERISHED AND ABANDONED. (See pp. 2lj-iS.) 
Such tields should be forever covered with forest. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. '27 

In the cool climate of New England the native grasses now'^Ae soii"o°n 
form a dense sod which holds the hillside surfaces in place, .^opes""™""" 
so that even where the forests have been removed there is 
little erosion. In the Southern Appalachians, however, 
neither the grass, the legumes, nor the other forage plants 
have been able to prevent this land erosion, and their only 
safeguard for the future is the protection of the forests. 
Hundreds of these steep mountain fields where selected 
grasses were sown have been observed during the past 
few j^ears, and the results, as indicating a means of per- 
manentljr holding these soils, have been generally unsatis- 
factory. (See PI. XXII.) 

This washing awaj^ of the cleared mountain .fields does mountain "lands. 
not alwaj-s manifest itself in the formation of deep gullies. 
The majority of these fields have slopes so steep that the 
water in its downward course can not alwaj's move later- 
ally to a sufficient degree for its concentration and the 
washing out of such gullies. Each drop of rain does its 
own woi'k in battering and loosening the surface; and as 
it carries downward the particles of soil it has captured it 
is joined by only its closer neighbors. Hence frequentlj^ 
after a heavy rain the surface of such a field looks as 
though it might have been harrowed or even raked down- 
ward rather than plowed in larger furrows. From one of 
these cleared fields more soil is sometimes removed b}' a 
single heav}' rain than dui'ing the preceding centuries 
while it was densely forest covered. 

But while the rains are removing the soils of the cleared „£ vane'°fands!' 
mountain slopes the floods are removing the soils of the 
valley farms. This is notably the case in the valleys, where 
the bordering forests have been cleared to the largest ex- 
tent. Year by year the channels of the streams are widen- 
ing and encroaching upon the adjacent farms, and as the 
magnitude of the floods increases, these mountain streams, 
transfoi-med into swollen torrents, leave their course and 
plow new channels across the fields. During the floods of 
the present year thousands of acres of the most productive 
valley lands in this mountain region have been damaged 
or destroyed bj' one or both of these processes. (See 
Pis. XXIII and XXIV.) 

It is, then, exactly true that the making of farms on 
mountain slopes is destroying the farms in the valleys, 
and that unless stopped by some external influence this 
process will proceed more rapidly as the population of the 



28 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

em mSiey^ ^'^'^^ region increases. It is therefore only a question of time, 
to be measured not in centuries but in years, when, unless 
this policy is changed, there will be no forests in this region 
except on the small remnants — say 10 per cent of the 
whole — where the mountain slopes are too precipitous and 
rocky to make the cultivation of the lands possible, even 
by an Appalachian mountaineer and his hoe. 
Policy under jf q^ ^jjg other hand, the policy now advocated is 

proposed Gov- ' ^ f j 

a™ment ""'""^^opted, and all these steeper mountain slopes are incor- 
porated into a forest reserve, owned and controlled by the 
Government, the valley lands will be protected from floods, 
and to the cultivation of these areas can be added that of 
the gentler slopes, the whole to be terraced and kept in a 
high state of cultivation bj^ the native farmer, who will 
retain ownership then as now. (See Pis. IX J and XXIII a. ) 
cipie'in^Govem- '^'^^ guiding principle of the Government in the creation 
ment "'^°''^'^' of this f orest reserve should be to protect the farmer in 
his occupation and to insure the use of agricultural lands 
for agricultural purposes; but also, and primaril3^, to main- 
tain forever the forest cover of these great and beautiful 
mountains, which can be perpetuated in no other way. 
Under such a system the agriculture of this region will 
be maintained on a permanently satisfactory basis. Under 
the present policj' it is advancing to certain ruin. 

FOREST CLEARINGS, THE RIVERS, AND FLOODS. 

the'^^souree'" o£ Probably no region in the United States is better watered 
many rivers. or better drained than this; nor is there anj^ other region 
which can boast of being the source of so many streams. 
(See PI. XII.) From about its northern end the New 
River (Kanawha) flows northward and westward and 
becomes a prominent tributarv of the Ohio; along its 
southeastern front the James, the Roanoke, the Yadkin, 
the Catawba, the Broad, and the Savannah reach the 
Atlantic; near its southern end the Chattahoochee and the 
Alabama flow directly into the Gulf of Mexico; along its 
western the Hiwassee, the Tuckaseegee, the French Broad, 
the Nolichucky, the Watauga, and the Holston drain 
westward through the Tennessee into the Mississippi. 

Each of these greater rivers as it crosses the Coastal 
Plain region toward the sea is navigable for light-draft 
vessels. Each throughout its lower course is bordered 
by fertile agricultural lands, which in the past contributed 
largely to the nation's supply of corn, but during recent 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXI. 



%- 




. 


^^^ 






K^3 


^^^^H^^^^^^ - ^ ^^^^^B^H^^B^Ei 


W'^^^^ 


^^^n 


Trij^^^^^H^B^ . T^ 






mm 


HM^^^^^^HMii^ 


nBHHHj^^^^^l 






i^g 








Br ~ '^^^^ 


^^^^1 


HK^'— '■'*'" 


i:-__' ^j^j^S 


HHH^^^SSS 


■H^^HH^^^^H 



{^) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN FIELD IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. (See pp. 26-28.) 




(B) APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FIELD COMPLETELY RUINED BY EROSION. (See pp. 26-28.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXll. 








J't- 



■>J^ 



\ • '■'• 






^vi^^i.-^'-' 



r 'c^_ ■ — 








(^) WASHING OF GRASS-COVERED SOIL, TOP OF ROAN MOUNTAIN, (iii-i; p. 27.) 

About the tops of the.se higher Southern mountains the grasses grow more vigorously than at lower levels; but 
even there the sod is not strong enough to prevent the \vashing away of the soil. 




{B) WASHING OF AN ABANDONED PASTURE FIELD. ^Seep. 27.) 
This is a good illustration of the process by which these mountain slopes are going to ruin. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXIII. 




(.1) UNWASHED VALLEY LANDS SURROUNDED BY FOREST-COVERED MOUNTAINS. (See p. LiV.) 

(See, also, PL IX ft, p. 21.) 




{S) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN VALLEY LANDS, BAKERSVILLE, N. C. (Scf p. 27.) 
The liiwer slopes of the mountains bordering this valley are largely cleared. 



Senate Doc. No. 84, 



Plate XXIV. 




(^) VALLEY LANDS BADLY WASHED BY FLOODS. (Seep. 27.) 

These fertile valley lands in the Southern .ippalachipns will all be .vashed away in a few decades unless the 
forests on the mountain slopes are protected. "eLaues unless tne 




(i'l VALLEY LANDS RUINED BY RECENT FLOODS AND ABANDONED. (Seep. 1^7.) 
As long as the forests remain on the mountain the valleys can be cultivated. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 29 



decades have begun to suffer seriously from river floods. 
Each one of these streams along its course through the^J^^'J|j°^j,^'^.'=^'= 
mountains and across the hill countrj' beyond by its water ?™,fs'"iOT'^^vater 
power is already a contributor to the manufacturing in- power- 
terests of the country (PL- XXV), and with improvement 
in the electrical transmission of power the possibilities of 
manufacturing developments in this direction are increas- 
ing rapidh' ever}- j-ear. The measurements and estimates 
recently made by the Government hj'^di-ographer show the 
aggregate available undeveloped water power on the 
streams rising in this region to be more than a million 
horsepower. On these streams water-power developments 
are constantly in progress, but their value in the future 
will diminish as the forests disappear. 

In the mountains themselves these streams have their 
sources at elevations from .3,000 to 6,000 feet, and before 
reaching a level of 2,000 feet manj" of them have reached 
considerable proportions. They subsequently flow across 
the mountain region for distances of from 20 to .50 miles 
before breaking thi-ough the border ranges onto the sur- 
rounding lowlands at elevations ranging from 1,000 to 
1,200 feet. Along their courses stretches of smooth water 
are never long, and the descent is often accomplished b}' 
numerous rapids, cascades, and fails. (See PI. XXVII; 
also Pis. LXX and LXXI.) Such cascades, with descent Beauty of the 

' ^ mountain 

in short distances of from V) to 50 feet, are abundant, streams. 
while in some of the smaller tributaries beautiful falls of 
from 100 to 300 feet are to be found. 

I can not adequate!}' describe the beauty and infinite 
variety of these mountain brooks and larger streams. 
Always clear, except immediately after the harder I'ains — 
for the forests hold back the soil — fed regularh- from per- 
petual springs, the}^ are among the important assets of 
the South. 

No gorges in eastern America can equal in depth and TheriTergorges 

'=''=> ^ *■ of the region. 

wildness those carved across the Blue Ridge and the 
Unakas by these streams in making their way through 
the marginal ranges of the Southern Appalachians. About 
the headwaters of the Catawba, the Linville River, after 
flowing for some miles parallel with the Blue Ridge, at 
an elevation of 3,800 feet, rushes down its eastern slope 
with a fall of 1,000 feet in less than 3 miles, through a 
gorge 1,500 to 2,000 feet in depth, a dozeu miles in length, 
and with wall so steep and bottom so narrow and rugged 
that few persons have succeeded in following its course. 



30 ' SOrTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

(See PI. LXXn. ) Almost the same language might be used 
in describing the gorge cut by the Pigeon River across 
the Unaka Mountains southwest of Asheville; and there 
are a number of others cutting the Blue Ridge and Unakas 
at different points that are worthj' of comparison with 
these. The same maj^ be said of the gorges of the Tallulah 
and other streams in northern Georgia. 

But notwithstanding the steepness of the slopes of these 
gorges, even where the descent is almost precipitous, they 
are forest-covered except where the trees and shrubs have 
been destroyed bj' tire and the soil has been removed by 
the storms. " (See Pis. XXIX and XLII.) 
irreguJarity of The perpetuation of the streams and the maintenance of 
gions'iargeiy their regular flow, so as to prevent floods and maintain 

cleared. . 

their water powers, are among the prime objects of forest 
preservation in the Southern Appalachians. Nothing illus- 
trates the need of this more fully than the fact that on the 
neighboring streams, Ij'ing wholly within the Piedmont 
plateau, where the forests have been cleared from areas 
aggregating from 60 to 80 per cent of the whole, floods 
are frequent and excessive. During the seasons of pro- 
tracted drought some of the smaller streams almost disap- 
pear, and the use of water power along their course is 
- either abandoned or largely supplemented by steam power. 
To-day the larger yaluable water powers in the South 
Atlantic region are mainly limited to the streams which have 
their sources among the Southern Appalachian Mountains; 
and the waters of these streams show a striking unif ormitj^ 
of flow as compared with the streams lying wholly within 
the adjacent lowland country, where forest clearing has been 
excessive. While the rainfall is somewhat greater in the 
mountain I'egion, it is a question of the regularity rather 
than the volume of flow, and this depends upon the water 
storage. The soil in the one region is as deep as in the 
other, and the slopes being gentler in the low country, 
other things being equal, the water would soak into it the 
]ate°'tte^flo\v^of more easily. In the mountain region itself the flow of the 
s reams. streams along which proportionately large clearings have 

been made has become decidedlj' more irregular, and the 
flood damages have greatl}^ exceeded those along other 
streams where the forests have not been disturbed. The 
problem resolves itself into one of a forest cover for the 
soil. 

This is just what one would expect who has been, during 
a rainy season, in the heart of a mountain i'egion where 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXV. 



= « 



•c o 

~ 2 



•a J □ 



a.-- 



g -■ H 



3 ? o 



5>. o 



ss 



as ^ 

~-3 9 

ox o 

T rt -T- 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXVI. 




(-■ii WATER POWER ON SALUDA RIVER. AT PELZER, S. C. I, See l.p. 1^9, 1-11. 




l/'i WATER PuvVER ON BROAD RIVER, AT COLUMBIA, S. C. (See pp. 29. 1-11.) 

These streams have their sources within the limits of the proposed Appalachian forest reserve; niid 
the perpetuation, of these valuable water powers depends on the preservation of these mo\intain 
forests. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXVII. 




CASCADES NEAR HEAD OF CATAWBA RIVER. (Sc-f pp. liU, UC. ) 

There nre hundred.s of oascarlea as beautiful as this in the Soutlierii Appalachians. As long as these mountain 
forests are preserved these streams have a regular flow; united tliey furnish the water powers whieh operate the 
factories valued at increasing millions. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXVIII. 




TALLULAH FALLS, GEORGIA. (See pp. 19, 2S, 139. 



l'h..to;.-ni].lu-.i l.y Hillers.) 



There is here a sucee.'isioii of beautiful cascades which have within a short distance au aggregate descent of 

335 feet. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 31 

the lands have not been cleared nor have forest lires de- 
stroyed the humus cover from their surface. The rain- " 
drops are battered to pieces and their force broken by the 
leaves and twigs of the trees, and when their spray reaches 
the ferns, the grass, and the flowers below, instead of 
running away down the surface slope it passes into the 
spongj' humus, and thence into the soil and the crevices 
among the rocks below. As much of this supply as is not 
subsequently used by the growing plants emerges from 
this storehouse weeks or months later in numberless 
springs. (See PI. XXXI.) The rain must be extremely 
abundant or long protracted to produce anj^ excessive 
increase in the flow of the adjacent brooks. 

The rainfall in this Southern Appalachian region, as 
shown in Appendix D (p. 143), ranges from GO inches for the 
year in Georgia to 71 inches in North Carolina. Heavv Heavy rainfaii 

, " renders forest 

rainfalls during short periods are common. Even in an "O'fer necessary, 
arid or semiarid region, where the rainfall for the year 
maj' be 10 inches or less, the absence of the forest cover 
results in a slow but sure removal of the soil from the 
mountain slopes. Much more in a region of heavv rain- 
fall, like that of these southern mountains, when the forest 
cover has been destroyed, will the soil removal be certainly 
and I'apidly accomplished. 

In studying the streams of the more northern States it ana^'j,,^™j^*'Jto° 
is seen that the numerous lakes and the deposits of sand ffre^t%?oWem? 
and gra^'el spread over the hills and valle3's of that region 
bj^ the glaciers serve to store the water and to preserve 
the uniformity in the flow of the streams, and would ac- 
complish much in this direction even were the forests in 
that region entirely removed. In this southern region the 
preservation of the soil and the streams is a task which the 
forests alone must accomplish, and to that end the}' must 
be eft'ectivel}' protected. 

The proportion of cleared and forest-covered land in ^.jgare "find in 
each of the great I'iver drainage basins of the region is APpa'acMan re- 

c b i? gion increasing. 

given on page 69, and as will be seen there, this proportion, 
though generally small, varies considerablj' in the diflerent 
basins. Taking the region as a whole, at the present time 
about 21: per cent of the area has been cleared. (See PI. 
XII. ) This proportion is an ever-increasing one — increas- 
ing the more swiftly for the reason that new fields are 
constantly being cleared and the abandoned fields are being- 
eroded so rapidly that thev are seldom reforested. (See 
PL XXI.) 



32 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 

di^a5n'"'^hea'°v Here and there among the Southern Appalachians a land- 

n''°essit^'o£'fOT-®^^'^^ extending over an acre, or several acres, has started, 

est cover. bearing on its surface a section of the forest, but the larger 

trees below have blocked its course within a few feet or a 

few yards of its original position. (See PI. XXXII.) The 

trees on its surface were tilted, but the subsequent upward 

bending of their tops shows that the slip took place ten, 

fif t}", or more than one hundred years ago. The abundance 

of such evidence shows that these rain storms among the 

primeval forests have been both frequent and heavy, but 

during the centuries these densely forest-covered slopes 

have not lost their soils nor the soils their fertility, nor 

Erosion of the j^.^^^ .^ f urrow been washed. Trees of four centuries stand 

forest-covered 

mountains e.x-^Q.flfjy j^ ^jjg yerv bottom of shallow raVines and minor 

ceedmgly slow. 

depressions (see PI. XXXIII), eroded before these forests 
covered the mountains. Had these forests been removed 
a few of these great rains that started these landslides 
would have cleaned the mountain slope of its recentlj^ 
formed soil, and would have swept the valley below. 
Thefuturemii Thcse mountains will continue to be the home of storms. 

liave Its storms. 

ForestsaionecanXheir heavv rains will continue to drench the slopes, if 

protect moun- ■ _ _ _ ^ -r 

tains. cleared of their forests, with increasing violence. Whether 

in the future these rains shall be caught by fern and grass 

and hunms, and received b}' a deep, porous soil, to be given 

out as needed to the vegetation above and the perpetual 

springs below, or whether it shall rush down bare, rocky 

slopes to iill the gorges and carry destruction through the 

vallej's beyond, depends upon whether or not these forests 

are preserved. 

Damages from xhe terriblv destructive work of the heavv rains in wash- 
recent floods m 
"lis region. i,]g- away the farm lands on the mountain slopes and in the 

valleys of this region, especiallj' where the clearings have 
been greatest, has alread}' been described. It should be 
under.stood clearly, however, that the dangers from these 
iioods are not limited to the region about the mountains. 
The floods from the Ma}' storm of the present year on 
the Blue Ridge, about the sources of the Catawba, swept 
the best of the farm lands along the course of that 
stream for upward of 200 miles, and cost the farmers 
more than a million and a half of dollars. An August 
storm in the same region added a loss of half a mill'on 
more b}' further destruction on the Catawba lowlands. 
(See PL XXXIV.) Similarly, the same May floods swept 
the valleys of the Yadkin in North Carolina, the New (Kana- 
wha) in Virginia and West Virginia, and the upper tribu- 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXIX. 




FOREST-COVERED SLOPES OF LINVILLE GORGE SEEN FROM BYNUMS BLUFF. 

If the forests on these steep slopes are once destroyed they can not be restored, as the soils will be 
quickly removed by the heavy rains. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXX. 




FORESTS REGULATING THE FLOW OF STREAMS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. 

(.See p|j. '29-31; ]a7-lJ2.) 

The leaves aiifl Vjranches ahnve break the foree of the raiiKlrtirw; the shrubs, ferns, and humus below catch 
the water anfl pass it .slowlv downward into the soil anrl rock crevices: and from this great natural 
reservoir, weeks or even months later, this water emerges in the numberless springs about the lower 
mountain slopes, and feeds the great rivers that cross the hill country below. 



Senate Dnc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXI. 




(-1) A SPRING ON SOUTHERN SLOPE OF MOUNT MITCHELL. 

These perennial spring.? are ferl by water stored in tlie forest-covered slopes of these moinitains. They 
maintain the regiihir flo^v of the many mountain streams of this region. 




I«l A MOUNTAIN BROOK IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 
In the beaiitiful Sapphire eo\nitry of North Carolina. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXII. 




(-■ll LANDSLIDE STOPPED BY THE FOREST, NORTH SLOPE OF ROAN MOUNTAIN. (See p. 32.) 




'''■) SMALL LANDSLIDE AT A SPOT WHERE NO LARGE TREES WERE GROWING. 

If it were not fur this forest growth the soils on many steep mountain slope.s, when siiturated from heavy 
rains, would either slide down like avalanches, or be washed down by the rushing water. 



SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN EEaiON. 33 

taries of the Tennessee with resultino- devastation, which, 
wlien added to that on the Catawba, sums up to more than 
^7,000,000 damage. Add to this the damages fi'om floods on 
other streams rising in difl'erent parts of this region dur- 
ing the spring and summer, and the total this j'ear approxi- 
mates $10,000,000. (See Pis. XXXV and XXXVI.) 

Such has been the story, on a smaller scale, of other 
similar but less violent floods about the sources of these 
mountain-born rivers during the past few years. If we 
are to continue the destruction of these mountain forests, 
this story will have to be repeated in successively larger 
editions in the future. 

THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 

As shown in the accompanying paper by Professor 
Henry, of the Weather Bureau (p. 143), the climate of the 
Southern Appalachian region possesses distinctive fea- 
tures of its own, although it partakes somewhat of the 
main features of the climatic zones both to the west and 
to the east. Its distinctive features, due to higher alti- 
tudes, are a lower temperature, both summer and win- 
ter, a drier atmosphere, and at the same time a greater 
rainfall and snowfall, and higher wind velocity. There 
are of coui'se local variations in the climatic conditions 
of the region, owing to its extremely varied topography, 
but the limited number of stations where observations 
have been made in this region makes it impossible to dis- 
cuss these local variations at the present time. 

It is in temperature that we might expect the greatest jn'^^^P|^on not 
variations, but, unfortunately, with the exception of a few 6^*™'^<=- 
months' observation on Mount Mitchell (elevation 6,711 
feet), no observations are available at elevations greater 
than 4,000 feet. The highest temperature observed on 
Mount Mitchell during May, June, July, and August in 
1873 was 72° in July; the lowest, 41° in June. At High- 
lands, N. C. (elevation 3,817 feet), the mean temperature 
of the summer is given by the Weather Bureau records 
as 65.7°, and the mean winter temperature as 35.4°. The 
extremes during a period of eight years (1893 to 1900) 
were 19° below zero in February'' and 86° above zero in 
June. 

The rainfall along the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge . Rainfaii heav- 

o f b lestm the East- 

is the heaviest in the United States, with the exception of <=™ states. 
that on the northern Pacific coast, ranging from 60 inches 



3-i SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

in northern Georgia to 71 inches in western North Caro- 
lina. The precipitation for the 3'ear 1S9S in western 
North Carolina at Highlands was 10,5.24: inches; at Horse 
Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.-39 inches, and Linville, 
71.05 inches. The rainfall in the warm seasons is often 
torrential, while in the spring and autumn the rains often 
continue over several days in succession. During May 21, 
1901, the rainfall in twenty-four hours was, at Highlands, 
N. C, 4.03 inches; at Henderson ville, N. C, 4.91 inches; 
at Flat Rock, N. C, 6.13 inches; at Marion, N. C, 7.25 
inches; and at Patterson, N. C. 8.3 inches. Near Roan 
Mountain, North Carolina, a rainfall of 8 inches in eleven 
hours has been recorded. In August of 1901 the total rain- 
fall for the month at Highlands, N. C. , was 30.74 inches, 
icleatire?™'^' '^'^® tables which accompany Professor Henr}'"s paper 
show the temperatures, rainfall, and other weather condi- 
tions at practicall}^ all of the stations established within 
this region. The}' emphasize two facts of special impor- 
tance in connection with the present discussion, namely, 
that the climate is such as to permit travel and lumbering- 
operations in all portions of this region throughout the 
entire year, while the rainfall, being heavy in the aggre- 
gate and often excessive within short periods, renders it 
necessary- to protect the forests in order to limit floods and 
prevent the washing awaj- of the land. 

HOW CAN THESE FORESTS BE PRESERVED? 

contof th™on"y Having given what I believe to be a fair statement of 

Sm.'''^"^ ^°'"" the conditions existing in the Southern Appalachian region, 

and considered the danger growing out of the policy and 

practice now in force, I pass on to inquire through what 

agency these forests can be preserved. After carefixl 

considei'ation I am able to suggest but one way to solve 

the problem, and that is for the Federal Government to 

purchase these forest-covered mountain slopes and make 

them into a national forest resei've. 

these'foreste be- Certainly, the lumbermen and the native farmers, who 

oT^priv-ate^tad?- 'ii'c '^ow pushing the destruction of these forests, can not 

viduais. ijg expected of themselves to bring about their preserva 

tion. Nor can the perpetuation of forest conditions, upon 

which depend so many national interests, be left to the 

caprice of private capital, which has no interest beyond 

the profits in the lumber industry. The restoration of 

forests already mjui-ed, and the reforesting of the steep 



Senate Dog. No. 84. 



Plate XXXlll. 




LARGE POPLAR TREE GROWING IN MOUNTAIN RAVINE, ON THE WEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT 

SMOKIES. tSeep. 32.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84, 



Plate XXXIV. 




(-1) SOIL REMOVED AND WHITE SAND SPREAD OVER THE SURFACE OF THE CATAWBA RIVER LOWLANDS. 

(See pp. 32, 130.) 

The damnges along this river from the floods o£ May and AugiLst, 1901, aggregated ahout fl, 500,000. 












•*?" 







{JU LAYER OF SAND SPREAD OVER THE FERTILE LOWLANDS BORDERING THE CATAWBA RIVER BY A 
FLOOD IN MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.) 



Senile Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXV. 








X-K 



-'.■■^S?*ia,.- 



I--1I FLOOD DAMAGES ON ELKHORN CREEK, IN WEST VIRGINIA, JUNE, 1901. 

The damages from floods along stream.s rising in this Southern Appalachian region, from April 30, to 
December 1, 1901, reached $10,000,000. Between Decemberl, 1901, and April 1, 1902, they reached J8, 000,000 
additional. 




(Bl DEBRIS FROM FLOODS ON NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE, MAY 21, 1901. 

This di^bris consit^ting of the wreck of farmhouses, furniture, lumber yards, bridges, cattle, and probably 
several human bodies, covered 6 acres of fertile farm larid near Erwin, Tenn. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXVI. 












ffB 




'"^ rro — ' 



OCns 






o'c o 




SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 35 

mountain slopes already cleared, are here properly national 
functions, for their results will be national in importance 
and extent. Furthermore, it is perfectly safe to assert 
that any satisfactory protection and development of these 
forests for the objects here contemplated is wholly beyond 
the agency of private individuals ; and such persons 
would have no direct interest whatever in the protection 
and perpetuation of water-power, agriculture, and navi- 
gation along the lower courses of the streams whose head- 
waters the_y control. 

Nor can the States within whose territorv these lands ownership and 

control by the 

now lie be expected to convert them into a forest reserve, ^l^^ "°' praoti- 
The land is not owned b^- the States, but by private indi- 
viduals. It is true that some of the wealthier States, like 
New York and Pennsylvania, are showing an intelligent 
and commendable interest in purchasing forest lands and 
establishing forest reserves for the protection of the 
sources of streams lying within their own boundaries and 
for the conservation of the forests. But the case is wholly 
different in the Southern Appalachian region. North 
Carolina can not, for example, fairly be expected to 
establish a forest reserve at great expense for the protec- 
tion of streams which though rising within her borders lie 
mainly in other States. Nor could Alabama be expected 
to purchase lands in the State of Georgia for the protection 
of her great river which reaches the Gulf in Mobile Bay. 
Nor could West Virginia be expected to purchase lands in 
North Carolina for the protection of the sources of the 
Kanawha Eiver, the largest lateral tributary of the Ohio. 

Furthermore, even were these States willing to enter ,P"rc,ii«se ot 

' => these lorests too 

upon such a plan, their financial condition is not such as SfHy f""' Jj^e 
to make the undertaking possible. The combined income states wiiiingfor 

p ^ _ Federal control. 

for a year of all the States within whose borders these 
lands lie would hardly be sufficient for their purchase. 
As shown, however, in the Appendix (p. 17:2), each of 
the States within whose borders these mountain lands are 
located has by legislative act expressed its heartj' approval 
of this measure and its willingness to cede the control of 
these lands to the Federal Government. 

This is a national problem. The people of a number of tijg™'''fore°ts °i 
States are directly interested. The dangers growing out j^^'J^'o"''' p™^- 
of the polic}' now in force are national in their character, 
as are also the benefits to be obtained b_v the policy now 
advised. This proposal for a national forest reserve has 
alread}' been discussed and commended by our ablest men 



36 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

of science, hj practical lumbermen, b}' the forestry asso- 
ciations, by many of the business organizations of the 
country, and hj both the technical and the general press. 
I earnesth' hope that it will meet with favorable action at 
the hands of Congress during its present session. 
National forest Congress has wiselv provided for the setting aside out 

reserves m the ^ . *■ . 

West. of the public domain, and thus withdrawing from sale, 

man}^ thousands of square miles of valuable forest lands, 
with a view to protecting the streams and perpetuating 
the timber supply about the mountains in our western 
States and Territories. (See PI. II.) And while the meas- 
ure now proposed involves a purchase instead of a with- 
drawal from sale of forest lands formerh' pm'chased, the 
principle and purpose are the same. In both cases, even 
if judged simph' as a question of finance, the Government's 
investment will ultimatelj' prove a good one. 
mraded n^t"a ^^ further illustrating the fact that the proposed pur- 
GoTcmment ^^^ ^hase will not be a new policy or precedent on the part of 
the Government, attention maj^ be called to the numerous 
purchases of lands for military parks, and to the purchase 
from the Blackfoot Indians in 1896 of more than half a 
million acres of forest lands at a cost of 81,500,000, which 
area was subsequently added to the Flathead Forest Reserve 
in Montana. 
mrae'^'^iL'^ortant "^^ '''■ Stated in oiv preliminary report of January last, 
than a park but ^jjg earlv movement for the purchase and control of a large 

the two not an- J r- b 

tagonistic. ^pea of forcst land in the East by the Government chiefly 
contemplated a national park, but the idea of a national 
park is conservation, not use; that of a forest reserve is 
conservation by use, and I therefore recommend the estab- 
lishment of a forest reserve instead of a park. If, how- 
ever, the present proposal for the establishment of a 
national forest reserve is favorably acted upon by Con- 
gress, and at some future time it should prove desirable 
that some considerable portion of this region be set aside 
and opened up more especially for use as a national park, 
I can see in advance no objection whatever to the carrying 
out of such a plan. 

CONDITIONS OF PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT. 

Cost of the I stated in the preliminary report just referred to that 

lands. *'° "^"^ lands in this region suitable for a forest reserve are now 

generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 to 100,000 

acres, and that they can be purchased at prices ranging 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 37 

from §2 to §5 per acre. Further investigations during 
the present 3'ear confirm the correctness of this statement. 
There are also man}' additional tracts of forest lands rang- 
ing from 1,000 to 60,000 acres each that are for sale at 
reasonable prices. Within the present year a few tracts 
of from 10,000 to 30,000 acres sold at less than f2 per 
acre. Within the past decade the larger portion of this 
area could have been purchased in large tracts at prices 
ranging from $1 to $2 an acre; but in view of the grow- 
ing demand for forest lands, prices have already advanced, 
and the}' may be expected to advance still more within the 
next few years. 

Within the past two decades the titles to many of tliej J^'^^^^^'o^j^^e 
large tracts of land in this region have been much in*°'^y. 
dispute, and the efforts to adjust them involved tedious 
processes in court; but I am informed by competent 
judges that iu practical^ all of these cases adjustments 
have finally been reached. Anj' appropriation for the 
purchase of these lands should provide ample time for 
the searching of titles, although no serious difficulty is 
anticipated from this soui'ce. 

Referring again to my preliminary report, I may quote gg^f^l^st^fn^i^™ 
a statement which has been further confirmed b}' the re- mateiy^yieid^a 
suits of the present year that "it is fully shown bj^ the?™'''- 
investigation that such a reserve would be self-supporting 
from the sale of timber under a wisely directed, conserva- 
tive polic}'." In the case of many of the European forests 
under government supervision a net annual income is 
derived from the sale of timber and other forest products 
of from Si to more than $5 per acre. I do net, of course, 
suppose that under the different conditions existing in this 
countrj' a national forest reserve such as proposed would 
yield such a result, j^et I confidentl}- expect that the reserve 
now i^roposed in the Southern Appalachians will in the 
course of a few j'ears be self-suijporting, and that subse- 
quenth", as the hard- wood timber supplies in other por- 
tions of the country become more scarce, the lumbering- 
operations will yield a considerable net return to the 
Government. 

Meanwhile, the establishment of such a reserve wilL i*?, indirect 

' benefits great. 

remedy many of the evils now threatened in this region, 
and under the efficient management of the practical for- 
esters now being trained in this Department its working 
will serve as a test and demonstration of the wisdom and forest reserve aa 

.. i- 1 ,■ J . • 1 , 1 an object lesson 

success 01 practical forest operations on a large scale; and win be great. 



38 SOUTHERN' APPALACHIAN REGION. 

this will encourage both individuals and States to adopt 
such methods of forest management on their own lands as 
will not onh' protect the forests in existence, but also re- 
store them on lands which should never have been cleared. 
Mineral devei- J r^^-, informed bv the geologists who are familiar with 

opments not in- J to to 

terfered with, ^jjjg gouthern Appalachian region that the development 

of its mineral deposits would neither interfere with nor 

be interfered with by the creation and proper handling of 

such a forest j'eserve. 

Existingsettie- '£]^q settlements now existing within the limits of the 

ments not inter- to 

feredwith. proposed rcservc would not be interfered with, nor would 
their existence there, nor their legitimate enlargement, 
intei"fere with the purposes to be accomplished in the 
establishment of the reserve. 
boundafy "n o w ^^ would not be wisc at the present time to make public 
given. ^]jg exact location of lands which may be thought best 

adapted for incorporation in such a forest reserve, but the 
general boundaries of the region within which it is pro- 
posed to purchase these lands are indicated on the accom- 
panying maps (see Pis. II, IV, and XII). I am of the 
opinion that the reserve should ultimatelj^ include not less 
than i,000,000 acres. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The results of these investigations of the forests and 
forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian region lead 
unmistakablj' to the following conclusions: 

1 . The Southern Appalachian region embraces the high- 
est peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. 
It is the great physiographic feature of the eastern half 
of the continent, and no such lofty mountains are covered 
with hard-wood forests in all North America. 

2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall 
of the United States, except that of the North Pacific 
coast. It is often of extreme violence, as much as 8 
inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 inches in one 
month, and 105 inches in a year. 

3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by 
torrential rains, rapidlj" loses first its humus, then its rich 
upper strata, and finallj^ is washed in enormous volume 
into the streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as 
are not eroded b}- the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to 
fill up the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now 
washed from these cleared mountain-side fields during a 
single heavy rain than during centuries under forest cover. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 39 

i. The I'ivers which originate in the Southern Appala- 
chians flow into or along- the edges of every State from 
Ohio to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. 
Along their courses are agricultural, water-power, and 
navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely essen ■ 
tial to the well-being of the nation. 

5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be 
accomplished only by the conservation of the forests. 

6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard^wood 
forests of the continent. In them species from east and 
west, from north and south, mingle in a growth of unpar- 
alleled richness and variety. They contain many species 
of the first commercial value and furnish important sup- 
plies which can not be obtained from any other region. 

7. For economic reasons the preservation of these for- 
ests is imperative. Their existence in good condition is 
essential to the prosperity of the lowlands through which 
their waters run. jNIaintained in productive condition 
they will supplv indispensable materials which must fail 
without them. Their management under practical and 
conservative forestry will sustain and increase the resources 
of this region and of the nation at large, will serve as an 
invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practica- 
bility of forest preservation hj use, and will soon be self- 
supporting from the sale of timber. 

8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appala- 
chian region must be protected and preserved. To that 
end the preservation of the forests is an indispensable con- 
dition which will lead not to the reduction but to the 
increase of the yield of agricultural products. 

9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this 
forest destruction continues, will increase in frequency 
and violence and in the extent of their damages, both 
within this region and across the bordering States. The 
extent of these damages, like those from the washing of 
the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with 
perfect accuracy, but during the present year alone the 
total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum sulBcient to 
purchase the entire area recommended for the proposed 
reserve. But this loss can not be estimated in money value 
alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of con- 
ditions most valuable to the nation and which neither 
skill nor wealth can restore. 

10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and 
of the agricultural interests here described can be success- 



40 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

fullj' accomplished onlj' by the purchase and creation of a 
national forest reserve. The States of the Southern Ap- 
palachian region own little or no land, and their revenues 
are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action is 
obviously necessarj', is full}' justified by reasons of public 
necessitjr, and may be expected to have most fortunate 
results. 

James Wilson, 
Seo'etary of Agriculture. 
Department of Agriculture, 

Washington, D. C, December 16, 1901. 



^FFEjN^DIX ^. 



FOBESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN 

APPALACHIANS. 

By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe. 

LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 
By O. W. Pkice. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS, 

BY RIVER BASINS. 

By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe. 

TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 
By AV. W. Ashe and H. B. Ayees. 

LIST OF SHRUBS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 
By W. W. Ashe. 



41 



LETTEE OF TEAIN^SMITTAL. 



United States Department of Agricxjlture, 

Bureau of Forestry, 
Waskington, D. C. , December 18, 1901. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the forests 
and forest conditions of the Southern Appalachians, including a descrip- 
tion of them by mountain groups, an account of lumbering in the South- 
ern Appalachians, and a description of their forests by river basins, 
together with an annotated account of the trees of the region and a 
list of the shrubs. 

Very respectfully, Gifford Pinchot, 

J^oreste^'. 
The Secretary of Agriculture. 

43 



FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN 

APPALACHIANS. 



Bv H. B. Ayres and W. ^\'. Ashe. 



The Southern Appalachian Mountains extend from Vir- 
ginia southwestward into Alabama, and lie between the 
Piedmont Plateau on the southeast and the lowlands of 
East Tennessee on the northwest. That this is preemi- 
nently a region of mountains is well illustrated by the fact 
that the mountain slopes occupy 90 f)er cent of the total 
area; and probably the combined area of the valle3-s and 
gentler slopes (of less than 10 degrees — about 2 feet in 10) 
will not aggregate more than 1.5 per cent of the whole. 

Before the advent of man the entire region, save the tops ^|j?°j*gg?p^°"i}: 
of a few high mountains — the grassy "balds" — was eov-°^"^"^°'''^^' ''°^" 
ered with forest, mainly hard wood. (See PI. XXXVIl. ) 
Then, as now, the forest varied as to density and vigor 
of growth, but a far larger portion of that existing then 
is resembled b}* the best of to-daj'' on such tracts as are 
found in the most favored situations and have been pro- 
tected from fire and severe culling. 

A total area of 5,400,000 acres has been examined in 
connection with this investigation, and of this 4,050,000 
acres, or 75 per cent of the whole, are still in forest. Of 
this total area in forest about 7.4 per cent, or 303,000 
acres, is still in primeval condition, i. e., has never been 
culled at all. The remainder of this wooded area has been 
culled to a varying extent. (See PI. XXXVIII.) A limited ^ Natureandex- 

*^ " ^ ' ^ tent of the clear- 

portion of that near the railway lines has been robbed of i°gs. 
nearly everything of commercial value, while the remote 
areas have had only the walnut, cherry, and figured woods 
cut. From the intervening areas, far the larger part of 
the whole, a varying proportion of the most valuable 
trees have been removed, but large amounts of commer- 
cial timber still remain. The clearing and culling of a 
century have made considerable inroads into these forests. 
The woodland connected with the farms has been largely 

45 



46 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

culled and is in part covered with trees of second o-rowth. 
In inanj' places, where transportation facilities are avail- 
able, the mills have gone into the heart of the mountain 
region and much of the choicest timber has been sawed there 
and hauled on wagons to the railroad. (See PI. XXXIX.) 
'^^"f^tiiefor- ^'^■'' ^° composition, generall^v speaking, it ma_v be said 
ests. that the forest below the 2,000-foot elevation consists of 

oaks, hickories, and pines; above that elevation are many 
hard woods, or hard woods associated with hemlock and 
white pine. Some spruce and balsam occur on the cold 
north slopes and around the tops of the larger and higher 
mountains. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST AND FOREST CONDI- 
TIONS, BY MOUNTAIN GROUPS. 

Subdivision oi For the sake of convenience in description the forest 

forest area. , i i- • i i en 

area may be subdivided as follows: 

(1) The forests of the Blue Ridge. 

(2) The forests of the White Top Mountain group. 

(3) The forests of Roan, Grandfather, and Black moun- 
tains. 

(4) The forests of the central interior mountain ridges. 

(5) The forests of the Great Smoky Mountains. 

(6) The forests of the southern end of the Appalachians. 

FORESTS OF THE BLUE RIDGE. 

The Blue Ridge from Virginia to Georgia is, on the 
dryer slopes and crests, lighth' timbered with small oaks, 
chestnut, and pines, while in the hollows mixed hard 
woods — oaks, chestnut, hickories, etc. — form heavy tim- 
ber. The forests are on the ridges and steeper slopes. 
The narrow alluvial bottoms and often portions of the 
adjoining slopes have been cleared and are under cultiva- 
tion or have been abandoned. But excepting these cleared 
vallej^s and hillsides, the forests are almostcontinuous from 
Virginia to Georgia. 

While the hardwood forests have been culled along 
nearl}' the entire east slope, onh' the choicest trees of the 
lighter woods, among which are white pine, have been cut. 
(See PI. XXXVIII a.) Before any of it was cut the 
white pine on the Linville River was probably the finest in 
the Southern mountains. A great part of this has been 
removed. It is being transported on a narrow-gauge rail- 
way via Cranberiy to Johnson City. Mills at Hickoiy and 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXVII. 




ORIGINAL FOREST, NORTHWEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 23. 4-5, .53.) 

There are no hikes or glacial gravels in tliis .Southern Appalachian region, such as abound in the Northern 
States. Here the forest and the soil alone must catch the heavy rains and regulate the flow of the streams. 
If theforest-s are destroyed the soils will be rapidly washed down into the river channel.s; and the terrible 
floods will destroy everything along the great river valleys. (See also pp. .56, 133.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXVIII. 





SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 47 

Lenoir are cutting the pine in the Johns River Valley. 
The other smaller bodies of white pine have been culled of 
their finest trees. 

FOREST OF THE WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN REGION. 

This region embraces the northwestern corner of North 
Carolina, the northeastern corner of Tennessee, and the 
adjacent portion of southwestern Virginia. In this portion 
oi the Appalachians, the Unaka (here represented bj Iron 
Mountain) and the Blue Kidge ranges approach nearer 
each other, and the intermediate land retains more of its 
original character as a plateau lying between the great 
Appalachian Valley, drained bj' the Tennessee. Eiver, on 
the northwest, and the Piedmont Plateau on the southeast. 
The White Top group comprises the mountains along the 
northern rim of the elevated mountain region. 

To the irregular mountain ridge which in this more Topographic 
northern region forms the boundary line between North 
Carolina and Tennessee, the name of Stone Mountain is 
applied. Here and there this ridge rises into peaks of 
prominence. On one of these. Pond Mountain, which has 
an elevation of 5,100 feet, the boundary lines between 
North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia corner. Another 
of these. White Top Mountain, some 5 miles to the north- 
east, and a far more massive and imposing mountain, rises 
to an elevation of 5,678 feet. Still another. Mount Eogers, 
on the Balsam Ridge, about 5 miles a little north of east 
from the White Top, rises to an elevation of 5,719 feet. 

The general course of this Stone Mountain ridge is to 
the northeast as far as Mount Rogers and then continues 
eastward as Iron Mountain to New River Gap. North- 
west of it, in Tennessee, is another less regular and less 
prominent ridge known as the Ii'on Mountains, reaching 
an elevation at intervals of from 3,000 to i,000 feet; 
and 6 to 8 miles to the west of this latter, in Tennessee, 
is the Holston Mountain ridge, reaching a still higher 
elevation. These ridges are all approximately parallel, 
having in East Tennessee a general northeasterlj^ course. 

To the northwest of these mountains lies the broad, 
fertile valley of the South Holston; to the southeast is the 
more elevated valley of New River, broken into an endless 
series of steep, round-crested hills, mostl}' cleared, and 
producing well in both grass arid grain. Broad agricul- 
tural valleJ^s lie between the Iron and Stone mountains 



48 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION- 

and between the Iron and the Holston mountains. There 
are many farms on the southeastern slope of the Stone 
Mountain, and its northwestern slope is dotted with clear- 
ings. Extensive clearings cover the southern foot hills of 
both White Top and the Balsam mountains. There is, how- 
evei', in this group an almost unbroken forest, at least 6 
miles in width, extending along the mountains f I'om Eliza- 
' bethton east to Mount Ewing, a distance of more than 60 
miles, 
mouuteiif Vo^r*^ "^^^ portion of this forest to the southwest of Damascus 
^^'*- covers the slopes of the Iron and Holston mountains and 

much of Shady Valley, between them. It is largely com- 
posed of hard wood, with which white pine and hemlock 
are associated. For 8 miles east of Damascus the forest 
covers both slopes of Iron Mountain. It has been slightly 
culled, but much burned. It is lightlj- timbered with oak, 
chestnut, hemlock, and some white pine. A large area 
l3ang east of White Top Mountain, on the upper slope of 
the Balsam Mountains, is heavilj' timbered with spruce (see 
PI. XL) on and near the summits, while hard woods, with 
some hemlock intermixed, occup}^ the lower elevations. 
From the eastern end of the Balsam Mountains the Iron 
Mountain extends almost eastward to Mount Ewing, a 
distance of 40 miles. Its summit is dotted with a few 
farms and pastures, but the forest on the slopes is almost 
unbroken. It is lightly timbered with small oaks, chestnut, 
hickories, and black pine. The forest has been severely 
burned over large areas. A railroad has been built from 
Damascus southwestward through Shadj^ Valley, and some 
of the finest white-pine timber in the United States is now 
being cut there. (See PI. XXXVIII b.) 

South of this large belt of forest are a few isolated 
mountains in the midst of the agricultural valley of New 
River which have their slopes well timbered. The largest 
of these are Phoenix, Three Top, and Elk mountains, 
which lie between the north and south forks of New 
River. Nearly 40,000 acres of this forest is uncuUed. 
Thei'e are six holdings of 10,000 to 50,000 acres each; the 
remainder is held in small areas of a few hundred acres. 
The farming region of both the New and Holston river 
valleys is dotted with wood lots sufEoient to supply the 
needs of the resident population. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XXXIX. 




(A) HAULING LOGS TO THE MOUNTAIN SAWMILL. (See p. 46.) 





















(B) HAULING MOUNTAIN LUMBER TO THE RAILWAY STATION. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XL. 




SPRUCE FOREST NEAR SUMMIT OF WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN, VIRGINIA. (SfL- pp. 23, 48.) 

Protected by a dense forest growth and covered by 8 dense growth of moss, flowers, and shrubs the 
soils on the steep mountain slopes catch and store the heavy rains for use during dry seasons. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 49 

rOKESTS OF ROAN, GRANDFATHER, AND THE BLACK 
MOUNTAINS. 

Eoan Mountain stands as a prominent figure in this (^^'^°Pf°fJg*^P^gy: 
group of four similar large, isolated mountain masses — '"'''^^■ 
Beech, Grandfather, Roan, and Black mountains — in a 
region which is largely devoted to agriculture. These 
mountains are alike in the general character of the forests 
on their slopes, and the agricultural lands about their 
foothills and intervening valleys. They are all heavily 
timbered, and, though much of their forest has been par- 
tialh' lumbered, onlj- occasional choice trees have been 
cut, causing 'no break in the forest and little change in its 
condition. Mixed hardwoods form the dominant element, 
and associated with theni are small areas of hemlock. 
Limited areas of spruce are found on or near their tops. 
Beech Mountain is the lowest of these four. It has 
few coniferous trees about it except hemlock and white 
pine on its northern slope, while large areas on the sum- 
mits of Grandfather, Roan, Black, and Craggy mountains 
are occupied by spruce and balsam forests. These forests 
are virtuallj' primeval, and trees of all sizes and ages are 
found intermingled, showing abundant reproduction and 
an undisturbed forest equilibrium. Along the drier por- 
tions of the summits and the ridges leading up to them, 
especialh' on the south slopes, fires have in some places 
done considerable damage. But areas entirely' fire killed 
are small. 

(1) The Beech Mountain group, including Sugar Moun- ^ Jpo| ra^pMe 
tain and other smaller peaks near it, lies between Watauga BeeSountaln! 
River and Banners Elk Creek and is the most northerly 
group. It has an area of about 70,000 acres (110 square 
miles), 20,000 acres (32 square miles) or about 30 per cent 
of which are cleared. It is the lowest of the four groups, 
having an altitude of only 6,522 feet. It is separated from 
Grandfather Mountain, which is about 15 miles southeast 
of its summit, bj- the valle}^ of the Watauga River and 
from Roan Mountain, which is about the same distance to 
the southwest, by the vallej' of Elk Creek, which is partly 
cleared. Although the south slope of the mountain is 
steep, the soil is deep and mellow and grass farms extend 
nearlj' to the summit. There are also a few farms on the 
northern slopes. 

The original forests of Beech Mountain are now largely 
confined to the deep hollows on the northern slopes. The 

*S. Doc. 84 ± 



50 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

greater part of them have been culled in degrees varying 

with their ease of access. 

topo|?ipMc tt (2) The Grandfather Mountain group, including (Jrand- 

^"^fr,^^°?^l,'^r father and Grandmother mountains, lies on the Blue Eido-e, 

Mountain. ^nd is the highest point in that range, having an altitude 

of 5,964 feet. While it is situated on the Blue Ridge, its 

affinities, so far as its forests are concerned, are with 

the interior mountain areas and not with the eastern slope 

of the Blue Ridge. 

The agricultural lands of this region lie to the north of 
the Grandfather along New and Watauga rivers, to the 
west in the valley of North "Toe River, and on the low 
mountains and round hills, dotted with clearings, lying be- 
tween the Grandfather and Roan groups. This mountain 
group contains an area of more than 100,000 acres, only 
a small portion of which is cleared. The cleai'ed land 
is located chiefl}' among the headwaters of Linville and 
Watauga riA^ers. 

The topography of the entire group is rough, with steep 
and often rook}' slopes. Many of the farms are on land 
which is too steep for profitable agricultural use. The 
eastern and southern slopes of the mountains are lightly 
timbered. The western and noiihern slopes have been 
somewhat culled, but are still heavily wooded. A dense 
mixed forest covers the northern slope and extends across 
the vallej' of Boone Fork of Watauga River, which is j'et 
uncleared for a distance of more than 5 miles from its head. 
(3) The Roan Mountain group, including Roan Moun- 
tain, Yellow Mountain, and Spear Top, lies on the bound- 
da.vY line between North Carolina and Tennessee, between 
Doe and Toe rivers. It rises from a base of 2,000 feet to 
a height of 6,313 feet. The area of this group is about 
120,000 acres, over one-fourth of which, or 36,000 acres, 
is cleared. The slopes are slight!}' more gentle than on 
an}^ other of the large mountains, and are well w'ooded, 
though dotted with clearings. The entire wooded portion 
of this area is well timbered. The north slope, being- 
nearest to the railroad, has been more culled, but some 
timber has also been cut on the south slopes at the heads 
of Big and Little Rock creeks. 
pog?rhrabout (^^ The Black Mountains, which lie just west of the Blue 
the Black Maun- Jii(lp-e, a few miles north of where the latter range is 

tains and the ^ ' ^ 

craggies. crossed by the Southern Railwa}', are a series of short 

ridges. The most massive of these is that of Black Moun- 
tain proper, which diverges from the Blue Ridge and extends 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

northward 10 milas to a rather abrupt ending. The larger 
part of this ridge rises above 6,000 feet, and Mount 
Mitchell, the highest of half a dozen grand peaks, reaches 
an elevation of 6,711 feet. From near the southern end 
of the Blacks the Craggy Mountain ridge extends south- 
westward for a distance of nearly 10 miles, and from this 
same point the Yates Knob ridge extends northwestward 
in a less regular form toward the Unaka range. These 
mountains lie between Toe River on the north and the 
Swannanoa on the south. At the southern end of the 
Blacks they touch the Blue Ridge. They are from 15 to 
30 miles south of Roan Mountain and 30 miles southwest of 
the Grandfather. The group has an area of more than 
170,000 acres, alDout 20,000 acres of which are cleared. 
Forests cover nearly the entire area of the Craggy Moun- 
tains, though they are not so dense, nor so nearly in their 
original condition as are those on the Black Mountains, as 
more or less lumbering has beeii done along both the eastern 
and the western slopes. Some of these slopes, too, have 
suffered much from fire and are almost destitute of young 
trees and undergrowth. The densest and most primitive 
forests of the region lie on the west slope of the Black 
Mountains about the headwaters of Caney River. (See 
PI. Xlll.) Those on the east slope of the Blacks are much 
lighter and have suffered more from fires. 



51 



FORESTS OF THE CENTRAL INTERIOR MOUNTAIN RIDGES. 

The Balsam Mountains make up the longest of the cross Topography. 
ridges in the Southern Appalachians, extending from 
Mount Guyot, the highest of the Unakas, on the Ten- 
nessee line, in a general southeasterly course to Mount 
Toxawajf (Hogback) on the Blue Ridge, near the South 
Carolina line, a distance of 40 miles. Thej^ reach their 
highest point in Richland Balsam — 6,640 feet 

Northeast of and less prominent than the Balsams are 
the Newfound Mountains, which form another and shorter 
cross ridge, extending from Mount Pisgah northward to 
the Unakas. South of the Balsams, the Cowee and Nan- 
tahala mountains each form short cross ridges, rising to 
less than 5,500 feet, which extend from the Blue Ridge 
on the Georgia State line northwesterly to the Great 
Smokies of the Unaka Range. 

These cross ridges are in their general features all much Agriculture. 
alike, with frequent steep rock}^ slopes and sharp crests. 
Thei'e is very little land on them suited to agriculture, 



52 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

except in the narrow valleys and coves. (See PI. XLIII.) 
The soils are generally thin and light, in some places 
sandy, rarel}'' clayey. These mountains, however, are 
surrounded by agricultural valleys, except near the north- 
west ends of the Balsam and Newfound mountains, where 
these join the Unakas. The forests on the northwestern 
portion of the Balsam Mountains are reallj" a continuation 
of those of the Great Smokies, and resemble them in the 
General forest specics represented and in the general forest conditions. 

conditions. tr f » 

The forests on the east side of the Balsams and on the 
Newfound, Cowee, and Nantahala mountains ai'e much 
alike, but the Balsam Mountains are much more heavily 
wooded than the others, especiall}' on their northern 
slopes, and have more of the softer woods, like linn, 
buckeye, and ash. The southern slopes of all are lightly 
wooded and have been injured by fire to some extent, so 
that in places the forest is open and young timber trees 
are scant. Much of the best timber has been culled from 
the Newfound and Nantahala mountains. The larger part 
of the forest land on the eastern spur of the Balsams 
(about Mount Pisgab) is under forest protection. 
Forests about 'pj^g forests of the Newfound Mountains are formed of 

the Newiouna 

Mountains. jjjjj.jj woods, largely oak and chestnut, associated with white 
pine. As they lie nearer the main line of the Southern 
Railway, and on account of the topography were easily 
lumbered, they have been more culled than those of the 
other cross chains. Some genei'al lumbering has been 
done on Wolf and Shut-in creeks, and an attempt has been 
made to remove all the merchantable timber from some 
large tracts. At most, however, it amounts to only severe 
culling. The forests of the Cowee and Nantahala moun- 
tains are very nmch alike. They consist of hard woods, 
in which oak, chestnut, hickory, and maple form the 
largest element. There is almost an entire absence of 
coniferous growth, the hemlock, which is associated with 
the hard woods elsewhere, being almost wanting here. 
Much culling has been done in the forests at the north ends 
of these mountains, where they are nearer the Murphy 
branch of the Southern Railway. 
Forests about xhe Balsam Mountains are more heavilv timbered than 

tneBalsam 

Mountains. {ijg other cross ridgcs. On both northern and southern 
slopes there are deep, cool hollows, or coves, with fertile 
soil, producing vigorous growth, and as there has been 
very little culling these forests are very nearly primeval. 
They consist of typical Southern Appalachian harp 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XLI. 




Senate Doc. No, 64, 



Plate XLII 



S « 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XLIII. 



£ > 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 53 

woods, associated with hemlock and spruce. On the north- 
ern slopes the softer of the hard woods form the dom- 
inant element, as linn, ash, buckeye, and yellow poplar, 
while the proportion of oak and chestnut is smaller. The 
hemlock is associated with these in the deep hollows, while 
spruce crowns the summits of the northern slopes. On the 
southern slope oak and che.stnut form the larger proportion 
of the timber, and there are less of the lighter woods and 
of hemlock and almost no spruce. The eastern, or French 
Bi'oad River slope about Mount Pisgah, is lightly timbered 
with oak and chestnut and has been much damaged by 
tire. At present, however, it is under forest protection, 
and a vigorous 3'oung growth is springing up. Railroads 
are now being built into the forests on both the north and 
south slopes in order to exploit the timber. 

The almost precipitous walls of the beaiitif ul Nantahala 
Gorge, nearlj' 2,000 feet deep, are forest covered through- 
out their entire extent. (See PI. XLIl.) 

FORESTS OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. 

This segment of the Unakas is the largest mountain Topography 

*=' * and forest con- 

mass in the Southern Appalachians, and it contains the<^'"o"s- 
largest area of continuous forest (see PI. XVII), with 
the smallest number of clearings. It includes the Smoky 
Mountains from the Big Pigeon River on the northeast to 
McDaniel Bald on the southwest, and that part of the 
Balsam Mountains which lies west of Soco Gap, with their 
numerous spurs and subsidiary ridges. The region is 
rough and rugged on both north and south slopes, and 
rises from a low vallej^ level of about 1,500 feet at the 
larger streams to more than 6,000 feet along the crests of 
the highest mountains. The wooded area begins on the 
western foothills of the Smokj' Mountains in Tennessee, 
covers the northwestern and southeastern slopes of the 
Great Smokies (see PI. XLIII) and the slopes of the 
Cataloochee Mountain. 

The broad agricultural vallej's of East Tennessee lie 
against these mountains on the northwest, but elsewhere 
they are surrounded by a rough country of lower moun- 
tains, with narrow, intervening agricultural vallej's. Less 
than 10 per cent of this area is cleared. The clearings are 
few and small, and lie chiefl}' some miles distant from the 
crest of the ridge. 

The forests are chiefly of hard woods, with a large amount , Nature and cs- 
of coniferous growth around the higher summits and in '^^ts. 



54 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

the deep, cool hollows. On the drier slopes, and especially 
on the south sides, oak and chestnut form the o-rcater part 
of the timber, with some black and yellow pine on the 
ridges. The timber in the hollows is more varied and the 
stand is heavier, poplar, birch, linn, and buckeye being 
associated with the oak and chestnut. The tinest and 
largest bodies of spruce in the Southern Appalachians 
occur here, along the crest of the ridge and the north 
slope of both the Cataloochee and Smokj' mountains. 
There are about 20,000 acres of spruce and nearly as much 
hemlock. There is no spruce on the Smoky Mountains 
southwest of Silers Meadow. 

The forests of the north slope of the Smok}' Mountains 
have been much culled and injured b}' burning and pas- 
turage. There is j'et a great deal of fine timber, however. 
Fires have also done much injur}' on the south slope, 
especially to hard woods, and the growth is often very open 
on account of the suppression of young trees by burning 
for a great number of j'ears. The valleys of Cataloochee 
and Big Creeks are heavily timbered, though they have 
been culled to some extent, and the ridges have often been 
burned. A railroad is now being built up Big Pigeon 
River in order to exploit the timber on these streams. A 
railroad is also under construction up Oconalufty River to 
remove a part of the timber from the east prong of that 
stream. 

FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN END OF THE -APPALACHIANS. 

Topography. South of the Nantahala cross ridge the Appalachian 
Mountains no longer consist of two well-defined parallel 
ranges with prominent cross ridges, but break up into a 
number of small, low mountains, or small ridges, with 
broad, alluvial valleys or low hills between them, or in 
some places there are a series of low ridges which are 
separated by deep, narrow, gorge-like vallevs. In north- 
western Georgia their identity is entirely lost, and they 
pass into the hills of the Piedmont Plateau. While only 
a few of these mountains have an altitude of more 
than 4,500 feet, the topography is rough, as the stream 
level is much lower than it is further northeastward, 
not being more than 1,000 feet. The resisting char- 
acter of the rock — quartzite, sandstones, and slates — 
which forms these mountains, which have eroded into 
sharp-pointed ridges with deep, narrow intervening val- 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XLIV. 



I 




la Haywood County, N. C. 




In East Tennessee. 
BIG CHESTNUT TREES. FROM THE BASE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 23, 54.) 



Se;ia*e Doc. No, 84. 



Plate XLV. 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 55 

lej'S, has added to the ruggedness of the region and its 
picturesqueness. Some of the largest of these mountains 
are the Bhie. Flat Top, Shooting Creek, and Valley River 
mountains. 

The northern slopes and hollows are often well wooded ^.^orest cou- 
with hard woods, chiefly with oaks, chestnut, maples, and 
hickories. The southern slopes are lightly wooded with 
oaks, hickories, and black and j^ellow pines, which also 
form the forests on the spurs and foothills. In very man}^ 
places the forest is open and thin, and many trees are 
defective. The undergrowth is often dense, consisting of 
numerous sprouts from young trees which have been 
killed by fires, and many shrubs which grow in the partial 
shade of the thin forest cover. In other places there is 
almost no underwood and no j'oung growth. Repeated 
fires have injured much of the timber on the southern 
slopes and greatlj^ unpaired the general forest condition. 
These fires are far more frequent and severe than in the 
hard-wood forests northward, on account of the drj-er 
climate and soil and the large amount of inflammable pine, 
and the resultant injury to the timber is more evident. 
On account of the thin, drj^ soil the trees are smaller and 
less vigorous than farther north, and the constant destruc- 
tion of the humus by the fires still further lessens their 
growth and keeps them small. The soils of the mountains 
are generally thin and sandy and not at all productive 
agriculturally. In manjr places thej- are ver}' rocky, so 
that tillage would be impossible. The altitude is too low 
for grass. About three-fourths of the area is at present 
in forest. Some of it is second growth, but onl3r a small 
part of it is such. There are occasional clearings, how- 
ever, around the base of the mountains and in the hollows. 
Lumbering has been in progress in man}' places and some 
of the choicest timber has been removed, especiall}' along 
and near the Marietta and North Georgia Railroad. 

CHANGES IN FOKEST CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN 
APPALACHIANS. 

The three agencies that have wrought changes in the 
forests of the- Southern Appalachians are the fires, the 
lumbermen, and the clearer of lands for farming purposes. 

Fire has come as an oft-repeated scourge since the days est'J^res!' ^^ '" 
of early Indian occupation. 

More than 78,000 acres of the region examined have, Extentandna- 

' ^ _ ture of their 

recently been so severely burned as to kill the greater por- "^^'^^s'^s- 



56 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

tion of the timber, but the greater aggregate damage has 
been done b}' lighter fires creeping through the woods j-ear 
after j'ear, scorching the butts and roots of timber trees, 
destroying seedlings and forage plants, consuming forest 
litter and humus, and reducing that thatch of leaves which 
breaks the fall of raindrops. Evidence of such tires is 
found over approximate!}^ -t, 500, 000 acres, or SO per cent 
of the entire area. (See PL XLVI.) 

The effect of forest fires is seldom appreciated, espe- 
cially in this region, where so few timber trees are killed. 
The killing of mature timber trees is, in fact, from the 
nation's point of view, the least damage of all; for were 
onl}^ the mature trees killed a dozen saplings would stand 
ready to fill the place of each, but the fires afl'ect the sap- 
lings much more than the large, thick-barked trees, and, 
too, where spring fires are habitual seedlings can not grow, 
j.^eproauctionj^g ^jjgy g^j.g ijiUed when very small. A forest under such 
conditions can not reproduce itself. The timber trees die 
out and are replaced b}- brush that sprouts from the roots. 
One who studies these effects can see everj'where the dam- 
age bj^ fire in dead trees, scorched butts, hollow trees, dead 
saplings and seedlings, in clumps of sprouts from roots of 
fire-killed trees, in the openings, the half-forested land, and 
in the annual weeds that occupj- the burned areas, nature 
using their humble efforts to cover the nakedness of the 
misused land. 
Fires increase The damage by fire causing a loss of the earth cover 

violence of ^ J » 

floods. does j^ot end with erosion, for it also prevents water from 

penetrating and being stored in the earth. The roots of 
trees penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and as they decay 
leave a network of underground water pipes. The mulch 
of f orestleaves encourages numerous ground-boring worms 
and beetles that keep the soil of an unburned forest por- 
ous, not only favoring the absorption of water, but also 
retarding the capillary rise of moisture to the surface and 
its loss by evaporation. The mosses and humus of a well- 
conditioned forest form wet blankets, often a foot thick, 
the function of which is so evident that it need not be 
Fires impover- explained here. The dissipation of the chemical elements 

ish the soil. ,^ , , t . ^ . i ^ n ' i ii -j 

of plant food into the atmosphere by fire and the rapid 
leaching away of the slight residue contained in the ashes 
is another injurious effect of the forest fires. 
Fires in this The experience of the older countries .should serve us 

region best pre- „-..,■,, , i • • ■ i • i i £ 

vented by Gov- Sufficiently to prevent our making a similar mistake ot 

ernment super- ,. . ^ • i i rpi < .1 

vision. policj' concerning our mountain lands, inat tne same 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XLVI. 




DAMAGES FROM FOREST FIRES IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. (See pp. 24, 55.) 

The lires do inealeulable daiiiHge to I he forests ou the slopes of these Diuuntains, injuring and often 
killing both tlic trees and the undergrowth. 



Ssnate Doc. No. 84, 



Plate XLVIt. 



^i^fSH'^fl 




W^% 




Bs:f^|^i'i^ 




,:,;V"'gVW^'^ 




^^■""^i^,'^'!''' 












•:f?p 


^^^*3fe^"-^^ 


1 . . ;" A' ' .';-. ' ^-y .-^ •'i.ii •* 




.'t'W 








t^ V- ''■ ' !*i 

■ ^■^-■ ■;.- 


m 


^ 




o 




E*tS-iL-' 


K 


^ 


H 



(-il BASE OF PINE TREE BURNED BY FOREST FIRES. (See pp. 24, .5.5.) 










(B) SPROUTS FROM BASE OF AN OAK KILLED BY FOREST FIRES. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XLVIII. 




(^) GRANITE KNOB FROM WHICH THE FOREST, AND LATER THE SOIL, HAS BEEN LARGELY REMOVED. 

l,Sef pp. -lb, 26, .50, 133, and PI. XIX,) 




(J3) HUMUS AND UNDERGROWTH DESTROYED BY FIRE; SOIL BEING WASHED FROM ROCK BY RAIN. 

When the fires destroy the undergrowth and the humus the soil loses its spongy covering, and the water 
from the heavy rains rushes down to the streams and causes floods, instead of being stored in the soil 
for dry-season supply. (See pp. 25, 56, 133.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate XLIX. 




(-11 DESTRUCTION OF FOREST ON MOUNTAIN RIDGES FOR PASTURING PURPOSES, l^i'v pp. -'i., .jT-j'J.J 




{B) CORN PLANTED BETWEEN GIRDLED TREES ON APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN RIDGES. (Sec pp. 'JG, 67-.5y.) 

Many of tlifsc steep mountain li'jlds are "cleared," cultiratcd, badly washed, and abandoned, all within 
less than a decade, and before the girdled trees have fallen to the ground. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 57 

effects follow the careless policj' of burning- mountain land 
in this countrj' as in Europe is proved by the alreadj- des- 
olate condition of large areas in the Rockj' Mountains and 
the plainly legible signs of the coming consequences in 
the Appalachian region. 

The lumberman has been increasing his activities at a The effect of 

... , . . , . lumbering. 

somewhat rapid rate, and be is ^'earl}^ going farther into 
the forests. The damages he causes come not so much 
from the trees he cuts in culling the forest as from the 
additional trees and seedlings of valuable species which 
he destroj'S in his lumbering operations, and the greater 
destruction from forest tires which follow him, fed by the 
tops and other brush he leaves scattered through the 
forest. Bj' his irregular cutting, reducing forest condi- 
tions, he renders impracticable the inauguration of eco- 
nomic, conservative forest management. 

Following in the wake of the lire and the lumbering, ,™? '?*™' "* 

>^ , f clearing steep 

and surpassing them both in the completeness and peruia- mountain sides. 
nency of the damage done, is the man who clears for ordi- 
nary agricultural purposes mountain lands which should 
forever remain in forest. The clearing of lands in this 
region for agricultural purposes has progressed slowlj^ 
but steadilj' during the past century as the population 
increased, until at the present time there are 1,200,000 Percentage of 
acres (24 per cent) cleared out of a total of 5,400,000 acres cleared. 
examined. (See PI. XII.) When it is considered that 
the settlement of this region has been in progress for 
more than a centuiy the extent of the area devoted to 
agriculture is small. The reason for this is found in the 
unprofitableness of cultivating lands with such steep 
slopes. The cleared lands are mostly limited to the allu- 
vial bottoms along the streams, the rounded valley hills, 
the lower mountain spurs, and the lower slopes of the 
larger mountains themselves below 4,000 feet elevation. 

In some localities, especialh' in the region around Roan 
Mountain and on the Blue Ridge north of Gillespie Gap, 
there are large areas of cleared land at an elevation of 
from 3,500 to 5,000 feet; but these are mostly grass farms, 
are not subject to continuous tillage, as are the corn lands 
below, and hence do not deteriorate so rapidly. Some of 
the slopes that are cultivated are very steep — from 30 to 
40 degrees — some of them too steep even for the mountain 
steei and bull-tongue plow, and must be cultivated entirely 
bv hand. 



58 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

The staple grain produced throughout this region is 
corn, which jnelds more heavih' than small grain and is 
ciearln''"'^ °^more casilj^ managed on the steep slopes. On clearing 
the land for cultivation the standing trees are girdled to 
kill them, so that neither their shade nor their growing 
roots will injure the crops. Some of the trees thus killed 
are used for fencing and fuel, but the greater number of 
them fall in a few j^ears and are then rolled into heaps 
and burned. Corn or buckwheat is usuallj^ grown on 
these newly cleared fields, between the girdled trees during 
the first season (see PL XLIX.) Following this corn may 
be planted one or two years more; then small grain, either 
wheat, rye, or oats, for one or two years; then grass for 
a few years; then follow worthless weeds, and then the gul- 
lies. When first cleared most of this mountain-side land is 
covered with a layei' of humus several inches thick, and the 
soil below is black and porous, owing to the large percent- 
The process of affe of vegetable matter it contains; but on cultivation and 

erosion. ° ° i i • • i 

exposure to the sun and washing rams this organic matter 
is rapidly dissipated. In this process most of the soil is 
washed awaj"; the remainder shrinks and consolidates, 
thus losing much of its power to absorb water rapidly, and 
loses its fertility by the continued eroding and dissolving 
action of the rains. 

Hence these cleared mountain lands have a short-lived 
usefulness, and new clearings are made to replace the fields 
which from 3'ear to year are abandoned because they cease 
to be productive. A few years of cultivation for fields on 
these steeper mountain slopes usualh' brings them to the 
end of their usefulness for agricultural purposes. This 
may be followed hy a few years of pasturage, and then 
donment ^a ri '^^'^i^ abandonment and ruin. (See Pis. I, XX, and XXI.) 
cleared" moun? Over the eroded foothills, along the eastern base of the 
tain slopes. Blue Ridge and western base of the Unakas, young pines 
may slowly cover again the eroded surface of the moun- 
tain slope, but over the more elevated portion of the 
Appalachian Mountain region the erosion, whether it be 
in gullies, visible for miles, or in the more common form 
in which the whole surface moves downward, is so rapid 
that the hard-wood forests, slower to reproduce, do not 
readiljr regain their footing, and hence the work of land 
destruction continues. 

The limited alluvial or bottom lands in this region being 
the most productive and easiest cultivated, were naturally 
the first to be cleared, and these are now nearlv all in cul- 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 59 

tivation; but with an increasing population tiie demand for 

additional fields to cultivate has led to the clearing of these 

mountain-side patches successively higher up the slopes, 

until now the area of these clearings considerably exceeds 

the area of the bottom lands. This process has gone on the 

more rapidly because of the rapidity with which these 

steep lands have been worn out and abandoned. There are 

yet many places where the gentler slopes might perhaps 

be cleared to meet the agricultural demands of the region, 

but unquestionably the steeper areas already cleared should 

be at once reforested in order to prevent their eai'lj^ ruin, abalidon^e*" 

All lands in this region remaining cleared for farming Isted.'^ ^^ ^^^°^ 

purposes should be kept in the highest state of cultivation, 

and those of even the gentler slopes should be carefully' 

terraced, and as far as possible kept in grass or orchards. 

The effect of exposing mountain lands to the full power 
of rain, running water, and frost is not generallj^ appreci- 
ated. The greater part of our population lives on level 
land and does not see how the hills erode, and even in the 
hills nearh' all the people go indoors when it rains and 
therefore do not half understand what is going on. In 
the dashing, cutting rains of these mountains the earth of 
freshly burned or freshly plowed land melts away like 
sugar. The streams from such lands are often more than 
half earth and the amount of best soil thus eroded every 
year is enormous. 

The individual owners are to a great extent helpless in gested 
preventing these unwise cuttings, clearings, and forest 
fires. Some of them can care for their own lands, but they 
can not, owing to their small holdings and small incomes, 
regulate the policy which controls adjacent areas. Only 
cooperation on a great scale, such as Government owner- 
ship could provide, can stop these forest fires, check this 
reckless clearing, and preserve these resources to the best 
advantage. 

The two great needs of this mountain region are: 

1. The use of the land for the purpose to which it is best 
adapted, which would require the keeping of SO to 90 per 
cent of it in forest, while the cleared land should be kept 
in the highest state of cultivation for farm products. 

2. Efficient and cheap transportation for the forest 
products. 



LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS NOW AND 
UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP AND SUPERVISION. 



Bv Overton W. Price. 



The protection of the headwaters of important streams in 
order to prevent floods and perpetuate water powers, the 
preservation of a great natural health resort and of impor- 
tant agricultural resources, are perhaps the most valuable 
results tha'^ would follow the creation and management of 
the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve. The applica- 
tion of practical forestr}- in this region by the Federal 
Government would bear fruit also in the maintenance of 
a sustained supplj' of hard-wood timber, in the production 
of a steady and increasing income therefrom, and in pro- 
viding a forcible object lesson to show the advantages of 
careful and conservative forest management. 

Lumbering is one of the principal industries of the j^^j^^^^J^^^^PJ^' 
Southern Appalachians. The agricultural resources of the ana their results. 
region must remain limited because of its ruggedness antl 
the low percentage of arable land. Its development as a 
grazing countr}^ is hampered by the lack of winter forage 
and the temporary life of the grass covering in the lower 
slopes. Its maui resource of the future will be its hard- 
wood forests, upon whose maintenance depends very 
largeh' the best and most pei'manent development of west- 
ern North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. The existing 
supply of merchantable timber has already been seriouslj- 
reduced, while repeated fires and unregulated grazing have 
in many localities greatl}' impaired the quality and health 
of the forest, as well as the chance of its successful repro- 
duction. Although there is still enough wood left to fill 
the local demand, the cost of logging it is constantl}" 
growing with the increasing distance between the market 
and the source of supplj'. Around each settlement there 
is a rapidl}' widening ai'ea which has been .stripped' of all 
merchantable timber under methods which too often render 

61 



62 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

it practically valueless for the production of a second 
crop. In manj' localities serious harm has already been 
done, which onlj"^ time and care can remove. A continu- 
ance of such methods will within the near future destroy 
this great natural resource of the Southern Appalachians — 
the lumbering of its valuable hard woods to supply a steady 
and growing demand. 

APPLICATION OF CONSERVATIVE FOKEST METHODS 
TO THIS REGION BY THE GOVERNMENT PRACTICA- 
BLE AND PROFITABLE. 

The application of practical forestry to the proposed 
reserve would not only preserve the productive capacity 
of the forest within its boundaries, but it would also pro- 
vide a proof of the results of conservative forest manage- 
ment which would be of value in inducing private owners 
of forest land in this region to adopt the same measures. 
There is no surer or quicker way of convincing the lum- 
berman of the Southern Appalachians that conservative 
lumbering pays better than ordinary lumbering than by 
an experiment on the ground, based upon a thorough 
study and effectively carried out. 
maiTagement The question of direct returns from the proposed 
proffl^ ^^^^ ^ reserve is, from the point of view of the Federal Govern- 
ment, a secondary one. Its highest benefit will lie in 
those indirect returns which are of so vital an importance 
to the best development of this region and its resources. 
However, that the forests of the Southern Appalachians 
can under systematic and conservative measures be made 
to yield a profit from their management is certain. 
Although local stumpage values are not sufficiently good 
to warrant the application of an elaboi-ate system of forest 
management, they are high enough to make conservative 
lumbering a sound business measure. The pecuniary 
advantage of practical forestrj- depends naturally upon 
whether it offers better returns than those to be had from 
ordinary lumbering. Since it reduces present profits 
slightl}' in order to insure a second crop of timber upon 
the lumbered area, its superiority from a business point 
of view rests upon the safety and value of the second crop. 
Serious danger from fires, a poor market, excessive diffi- 
culties to overcome in logging, or anj' other adverse con- 
dition which seriously impairs stumpage values, may 
render'the probable future returns from a forest insuffi- 
cient to justify conservative measures in lumbering it. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate L. 




l.-l) WASTE IN SAWING AT A SMALL MILL IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (S(jep. IB.) 




ill) TOPS LEFT AMONG THE TREES IN LOGGING. (See pp. 24, fi7.) 
These feed the forest fires so effectively that they sometimes destroy everything in their patli. 



Senate Doc. Nc. 84. 



Plate LI. 




(.1) SAWINQ LARGE TIMBER AT A SMALL MILL IN THE MOUNTAIN FOREST. ^ Sue pp. 62-64.) 




{Ji) BINDING POPLAR LUMBER FOR EXPORT, FROM THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 63 

Not onl}^ is there no unfavorable condition in the South- th?sreglon'{avo° 
ern Appalachians which is suiEcient to render practical ^]^\?g''^^j^°J'j.^f'"^" 
forestrj^ inadvisable as a business measure, but the oppor- 
tunity' oifered for good returns from careful and conserv- 
ative forest management is a peculiarl}^ favorable one. 
The forest contains valuable timber trees, which not onlj' 
command a high price at present, but are rapidlj^ increas- 
ing in value for the lack of satisfactory substitutes, notably 
in the case of Black Walnut, Cherrj^ Hickory, Yellow Pop- 
lar, and White Oak. The transport of timber presents some 
difficulties, as in all mountain countries. These are, how- 
ever, seldom suiBcient to impair seriously the profits from 
lumbering. Efl'ective protection from fire is practicable 
without prohibitive expense, while in its rate of growth, 
readiness of repi'oduction, and responsiveness to good 
treatment the forest offers silvicultural opportunities which 
are seldom excelled in this countrv. 



SOME EVILS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF liUMBERING. 

Practical forestry in the Southern Appalachians must 
comprise those modifications of the present methods of 
lumbering which will not only insure a fair profit upon 
present operations, but will prefeerve the productiA^e 
capacity of the forest and provide for the desired repro- 
duction of the timber trees. Unnecessary damage to the 
forest and total lack of provision for a future crop is 
characteristic of the lumbering now carried on in this 
region. Logging operations have generallj^ shown an 
inexcusable slovenliness, as foreign to good lumbering as 
to practical forestrj'. 

A clean lumber job is seldom seen. There is great waste wasteful meth 

J ^ ^ ^ ods lollowed. 

of good timber through poor judgment in gauging the log- 
lengths and in cutting stumps much higher than is neces- 
sary. Butting off unsound portions of trees is not always 
done; trees not wholly perfect are sometimes left to rot 
where thej^ fall. Care is seldom taken to throw trees 
where they will do the least harm to themselves and to 
others, and in consequence lodged and smashed trees are 
veiy common. Overlooked sound trees are also numerous. 
However, criticism of lumbering in the Southern Appa- 
lachians must take into consideration the circumstances 
which led to it. Almost all of the work has been done by 
the farmers of the region in order to supply their fuel 
and other household material and to add to the poor living 



64 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

afforded them by their farms. These men are often ham- 
pered b}^ lack of capital, are generallj' wanting in the 
knowledge requisite to good lumbering, and have had 
always to contend with the difficulty of obtaining expert 
loggers to carry out the work. Nevertheless, the near- 
ness of large bodies of merchantable timber, among which 
are valuable kinds, such as Cherry, Black Walnut, Hickory, 
and Yellow Poplar, has usually made a fair profit possi- 
ble under even the most thriftless logging methods. This 
desultory cutting has been going on for years, and although 
the individual efforts have been small, they have removed 
the merchantable timber from the larger portion of the 
accessible forests. 



RECENT LTTMBERING METHODS MORE PROFITABLE, 
BUT ALSO DESTRUCTIVE. 

When the waning supplies of timber in the North and 
East some fifteen j-ears ago forced the loggers of those 
regions to the South, the application of skillful and 
systematic methods of lumbering began in the Southern 
Appalachians. The newcomers, through the investment 
of commensurate capital in logging outfits, the thorough 
repair and extension of logging roads, and the generall}^ 
businesslike mode of attack characteristic of the trained 
lumberman, have reaped a profit from their operations 
entirely impossible under the slipshod, desultory lumbering- 
methods of the settler. 
Nature oi the The harm done to the forest in both cases is verv great 

damages. . . . , , mi • " • i 

m proportion to the quantity ot lumber cut. Ihis is due 
largely to the size of the trees and the fact that little care 
is taken in the fellings. The damage to young growth is 
increased by the absence of snow and by the fact that trees 
are often cut when thej^ are in full leaf. 

The breaking down and wounding of seedlings and j'oung 
trees by the snaking of logs to the roadside or the river is 
• in some degree unavoidable; but the damage is often much 
in excess of what is necessary. (See PI. LIII.) There are 
often, however, many more snakewaj-s, or skidwaj's, than 
are necessaiy , and the application of a little system in laying 
them out would save time and young growth on a lumber 
job. On the higher and steeper slopes it is often the habit — 
and one which can not be criticized too strongly, except 
in those rare cases where it is absolutely necessaiy on 
account of the gradient — to roll the logs from top to 



Senate Doc. No. 84, 



Plate LII. 




TIMBER NEAR MOUNT ROGERS, VIRGINIA, WHICH SHOULD HAVE BEEN CULLED LONG AGO. 

(See pp. (U-67. 1 

Under every system of forest management the mature timber should be cut and used. Otherwise it 
interferes* with the proper development of the younger growth; and when it decays and falls it 
may feed fires so as to destroy the forest. 



Senate Doc. No. 84 



Plate Llll. 




UNNECESSARY FOREST DESTRUCTION ALONG THE SNAKING TRAIL. (See p. 64.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LIV. 




REPRODUCTION OF HARD-WOOD FOREST IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. ' f-^L' PI'. I''. '^>'-) 
The largu trees Imve supplied the seeds from which the smaller ones have grown. 



SOUTHERN APPALACniAN REGION. 65 

bottom, merely starting them with the canthook. A 16- 
foot log, 3 feet or more in diameter, can gain momentum 
enough in this way to smash even fair-sized trees in its 
path, and when it passes through dense young growth it 
leaves a track like that of a miniature tornado. The prac- 
tice is in line with others to be observed in the Southern 
Appalachians, such as the common habit, for example, of 
leaving to rot the "deadened" trees which stand over 
clearings. There are cases in which these clearings have 
been inclosed with fences built of rails split from prime 
black walnut, with no other excuse than that the walnut 
happened to be within easier reach than either oak or 
pine. 

Under such methods, in which there is not only an abso- 
lute lack of provision for a future crop but often a marked 
absence of that forethought, skill, and aversion to waste 
which go to make clean lumbering, most of the logged- 
over areas in the southern Appalachians are only saved 
from entire destruction of the standing trees bj^ the gen- 
ei'ally scattered distribution of the merchantable timber. 

OBJECTS AND POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT 
UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP. 

In the aj^plication of conservative forest management 
to that portion of the foi'ests of the Southern Appalachi- 
ans included within the proposed reserve, the first aim 
should be to protect them from. fire. The safety of the 
forest from fire must form the foundation of any system 
of practical forestry which is to be permanently success- 
ful. Fire has done and continues to do enormous damage 
in this region. The chief cause lies not in malice or in 
carelessness of campers or of lumbermen, but in the 
ancient local practice of burning over the forest in the 
autumn, under the belief that better pasturage is thus 
obtained the following y^ear. 

The fires are started bv the settlers upon the area which Proteotion 

- '^ against forest 

IS to serve as a sheep or cattle range the following season, fi^s. 
and are permitted to burn unchecked. The result is that, 
except where confined by roads, streams, or clearings, 
they often spread from the wood lots of the foothills, in 
which they are set, to the forests of the higher mountains, 
there to burn unmolested imtil rain, snow, or lack of 
inflammable material puts them out. 

*S. Doc. 84 5 



66 SOUTHERN- APPALACHIAN REGION. 

The hard-wood forests of .the Southern Appalachians 
are by no means so intlammable as the coniferous forests 
of the North and West. Forest fires in this region are 
seldom more than ground fires, and onlj' under the influ- 
ence of exceedingl}' high winds in a dry season become 
uncontrollable. With an active and adequate force of ran- 
gers and a thorough system of trails, the protection of the 
proposed reserve would be practicable. The good results 
of its preservation from fire would be twofold. In addition 
to the evident benefits of efficient fire protection upon the 
forest would be the forcible example provided to prove 
that the forest untouched b}' fire j'ields in the long run 
better and more plentiful pasturage than if it be annually 
burned over. The modification of present methods of 
grazing in the Southern Appalachians, like the modifica- 
tion of present lumbei'ing methods, will follow proof of 
its advantages much more rapidly than it would follow 
propaganda. The one is no less impoi-tant to the best 
development of this region than the other. The advan- 
tages of both could in no way be bettei established than 
by their practical illustration in the proposed reserve. 

The mountain forests of the Southern Appalachians are 
silviculturally the most complex in the United States. 
The}' contain manj' kinds of trees, varying widely in habit 
and also in merchantable value, and the forest type is 
constantly changing with the differences in elevation, 
gradient, and soil. Their best management is difficult, 
because the lack of uniformitj' in the forest renders it 
necessary constantly to vary the severity of the cutting 
and to discriminate in the kinds of trees which are cut, 
instead of following onh' those general rules which suffice 
where there are fewer species represented and the forest 
conforms more closely to a single type. 

IMPROVEMENT IN GENERAL FOREST POLICY 
NECESSARY. 

Improvement Jn order to reproduce these forests successfully and to 

m method of ' ■' 

lumbering. minimize the damage done by lumbering, first of all it 
will be necessary to have a radical improvement in the 
fellings. Such an improvement is entirely practicable 
without additional cost per 1,000 feet B. M. of timber 
felled. It often requires no more labor to fell a ti-ee up a 
slope than down it, or upon an open space rather than 
into a clump of young growth; and it is in just such cases 
as these that unreasoning disregard for the future of the 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 67 

forest is commonly manifested in the Southern Appa- 
lachians. 

In the selection of trees to be felled the small farmers, forest under Si 
who for a long time were the only lumbermen in the^^^'®™- 
Southern Appalachians, have been governed b}' the same 
considerations that govern lumbei'men elsewhere. They 
have taken the best trees and left uncut those of doubtful - 
value rather than run the risk of loss in felling them. 
Furthermore, the fact that the_v have lumbered generally 
on a very small scale and have often had great difficulties 
with which to contend in the transport of logs has led 
them to extremes in this respect. The result is that they 
have reduced the general quality of the forests in a meas- 
ure entirel}' disproportionate to the amount of timber 
cut. As a rule, only prime trees have been taken, and 
those showing even slight unsoundness have been left 
uncut, except where the stand of fii-st-class timber was 
insufficient. Diseased and deteriorating trees remain to 
offset the growth of the forest bv their deeaj' and to reduce 
its productive capacit3' still further by suppressing the 
3'ounger trees beneath them, while in the blanks made by 
the lumbering worthless species often contend with tie 
young growth of the valuable kinds. In other words, 
the lumbering has closely followed the selection system, 
but the principles governing the selection have usually 
been at variance with the needs of the forest. 

CONSIDERATIONS THAT SHOULD GOVERN IN THE 
MANAGEMENT OF THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE. 

In order to bring about successful reproduction of the 
desirable species and to maintain the quality and density 
of the stand, lumbering in the mountain forests of the 
Southern Appalachians must be governed by the following 
main considerations: 

(1) Remove all diseased, overripe, or otherwise faultv Removal of 

j_ ■! 1 1 • 11 .1 /v."" faulty trees. 

trees of a merchantable size where there is already suffi- 
cient 3'oung growth upon the ground to protect the soil and 
serve as a basis for a second crop of timber. (See PI. LIV.) 
In extreme cases, where the condition of the forest is 
seriousl}' impaired by the presence of a large number of 
such trees or where they overshadow and serioush' retard 
promising young growth, their removal may be financially 
advisable when the sale of product no more than pays the 
cost of the logging. 

(2) So direct the cuttings that the reproduction of the ^ourlle 1ro°nh 
timber trees may be encouraged in opposition to those of ef J'^'"'''''* ^''*'' 



68 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

less valuable kinds. This can not be successfully accom- 
plished in the Southern Appalachians bj^ cutting a diameter 
limit merely. A limit will by all means be advisable for 
each species, based upon a study of its rate of growth and 
the proportion which different diameters bear to its con- 
tents in board feet. It will be frequenth' necessary, how- 
ever, to leave trees of a merchantable diameter where 
their removal would seriously impair the density' or where 
seed trees are necessary. 

In the leaving of seed trees many considerations are 
involved, onlj' a few of which can be mentioned here. 
tio'^of se'edSls: The Oaks, Hickories, Walnuts, and Chestnut should be 
favored, since their seed is too heavy to be carried by. the 
wind, and much of it is eaten b}^ animals. The marked 
tendency of the pines (see PI. LV), Hemlock, and Yellow 
Poplar to reproduce by groups must be encouraged-. On 
south slopes and in dr^^ localities generallv, where Dog- 
wood, Sourwood, and Scrub Oak contend with the timber 
trees, great care must be taken not to disturb the balance 
between them. The rich, moist soil of the Poplar coves is 
particularh' likely to produce a luxuriant growth of weeds 
and brambles instead of tree seedlings if too much light is 
admitted to the soil, while the Ash, Cherry, and Basswood, 
which are only sparselj' represented in the mature stand 
and are fui-ther handicapped among the 3'oung growth by 
their strong demands upon the light, will require an 
exceedinglj- conservative method of management. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LV, 



l^t£^^i 




i^*-?? 


--3J3t»5rr4J?/^S%'3!JJ! B 


iA^Cft«.>mH?=4iB>b^ 


L£al 


v'. • 1 ' 'j ■■ 'r 


'^7; 


^1 w^* 


j^--'P*s' iJ-^iiJPwSM^MSc m. 


«v-- .. ** i » . -t^ 


•"-■';• 1 




^?^ 




^S'r'."/ l.^H^C' 






ij ' *-•• 










?^^ 


B' ^." 


.v?J 


'j £ *• 


'-■•■ ' ■'if 


ap^ vm-^llj^t^;? ! 




■■- *^. 


'■ w*i^ 


^^j 


i!% 


^'^ 




wfi*^ '*M • i^ ' Sj 


' i 


,1^ 


i-> Vi 


J s 


^P* SB 


^^■PM^B ^ 


^Jfe«.*^ -'^K^ '' 


■if? 


e Sm^'?: 


=>^ 


1 ;■»■ 


'^a!. js 


*iia»:.-^ faifi,7!|-'?aiS 4 


- ' VTipt-" jfet.- ^H -^SHr^ 


'*>: 


f V'Ol 


1 {?* 


*LjM 


^v^^s^k^ejmkw - yj^^'TjK^iM 


|Av >.-. SH. IC^IkSF^,'/ 


^ 


^fei:i 


"1 


¥fim 




-'^^^^^btR* ^Bi^^S^^--' 


V V "i 


^, ■• 


p^rrasttrx 


ff. 


i*^ 










1 


ft 




"i 

t 


^ 


1 


ST 


s 


\m^Mi 


.;*i^ 


%:_^ 


4;r^*i^B? 


€^"^*itl 


W 


1 ■ia%- i* •-?■' 


>V' 


' "V ~ Si 


SnlB^Bk"* m 


-J3 :---( ^^flB 


,\v«' .i" Kr^^t^yEI 


■ »? 


f*!"' ^>:|'. 

;'':^#^ 


■■■:. * 




r:-CT.v^.k'^ 




^M 


P^M: m^iHc 




^l^ii^ 


m 


^K 


^^1 


i 




^H 


^Pp gf^ 


'r ■. ■ 








J :r;5ii'WP B ■ a 


.^ 










S'^^>^ 


%i 


iyji. ^ 


Ow^^^r^ 


jfc 


^^' 


^^^_s'' !^;ii"v"''''* 


4'- 


* • ■ 1'^^^ 


■ri"? 


J"'V '^ ift? 


jKW ^ pyBr ^^^eA 




{Cl^ §1 . 


a'jtgBJ^^^^ ^ ! J^'^vA .V'A.^ 


—• 


>;l=ii-"v ? 


If i 


'Vi*' gjS 


P^R^Ii3^9MB^^r^ 


v^ 


r.««^ 


l^^wKii^ V { i^'* '^^ ^ ! ''*'''* 


I- » 


-V '. ■• *-!•.■.'■ i'f' 


I'.'fe 




l^^ffi-i" ii't >S( 


■*Tt3 


3S8-tr' 








,'|9 


5" w^. r^y. 




^.! 


^^99^^ 'S^H^-'a''- 


^'ii 




:'|-^ 




y!lii 


mm 


SH^/ ^11^ 






n 


y ij 


KHi^^^^H 


^Wffc' T-lS:'^- 




f|, i'^V 




:|ll 


,;r^?,^(|-|\t^^^ 




./v •% 

SI 


t?| '.k^^T 




j^: Mf 


mBeSi. "^f ;s''' . J J^Si^"" '^ 


«:;;:■ :-^i-i^^ ;r'-vk'^- 


? > 




" \M 


l'^5»-^.^ 


MS^M. i 'A i^^svS' § 


=»>,.'-?^'«^^ 'i'- .§'^,;l':-'i 


■-•.»- 


i^is^^f 


Oi 


^^ 


Mm^mpMMt ■ 




1 


l^& 


IM 


m 


^^^|MM 


^■^lIS j^^: V'i'^Si* 


- '. 




m 




^P^isir, 






1 . ,' s-^.:;: 

- ^ f * ^ -jf 




^^$ 


&S;'.f!| 






3^-- 




S 


1^ 












w ^ 




^fei^^^'^^ 


SfclPlc-^ ■ >*;■: ***^' 


- ^ 


«^£^ 


|T?"^ 


fr_j..^ 


^'"^^ - ^^'v^SJ 


m"^^^^ 




fc^< -'.".-M 1 


^ 


Hj 


' fT^^ 


^F- n 




M^^ 


' 


^^ 


^ ■-. ^^L^ 


P !^ 


f^ 


W ^M 






^W^P*. iZ^M< 







REPRODUCTION OF WHITE-PINE FOREST. (See pp. G7, OS.) 
Wliite-pine saplings on cut-over land, Graham County. N. C. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS BY 

RIVER BASINS. 



By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe. 



In order to present in more convenient form detailed 
information about the forest conditions in the Southern 
Appalachians, the following descriptions have been 
arranged b}^ drainage basins, beginning at the northeast 
and moving around the mountains to the place of begin- 
ning, in the order given below. This arrangement will 
serve an important purpose in the consideration of water 
flow and also the question of transportation. 

The region has for this purpose been divided into the 
following fourteen drainage areas: New River, South 
Fork of Holston River, Watauga River, Nolichucky River, 
French Broad River, Big Pigeon River, Northwestern 
Slope of Smok}' Mountains, Little Tennessee River, 
Hiwassee River, Tallulah and Chattooga rivers^ Toxaway 
River, Saluda River and First and Second Broad rivers, 
Catawba River, Yadkin River. 

NEW BIVEB BASIN. 

[712,000 acres: 50 per cent wooded.] 

New River, a feeder of the Ohio through the Kanawha, Topography. 
drains the eastern portion of the Appalachian Plateau 
lying between the Blue Ridge on the southeast and Iron 
Mountain on the northwest. The sources of the tributa- 
ries are high, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but the river valley 
below the junction of the North and South forks has been 
eroded down to an altitude of 2,500 to 2,000 feet. The 
resulting topogi'aphy is a system of deep, narrow valleys 
and ravines, among which area few isolated peaks (having 
an altitude of 5.000 feet and upwai'd) and occasional flats, 
which are of two classes — (1) in high altitudes remnants 
of the old plateau, and (2) along the larger streams, nar- 
row, sedimentary fiats. 

69 



70 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



Agriculture. 



Erosion. 



The forest. 



The greater portion of this area ha.s been cleared, 
although mostl}^ too steep to be arable. The hills are 
cleared for grazing, to which industry this land is better 
adapted than to agriculture, in view of the great erosion 
and the difficulty of maintaining roads in this remote and 
hilly region. Excellent crops of hay and grass are the 
rule on new land, and the custom is to crop and graze a 
clearing until it wears out, then clear a new field. 

Many of the old hill fields are now worn out by close 
pasturing and bj^ the erosion of unprotected humus, and 
are being gullied to the underlj'ing rock by every shower. 

The forests of large area are limited to the higher alti- 
tudes on the isolated peaks between the North and South 
forks, and on Balsam and Iron mountains which form the 
northwestern rim of the plateau. On the southeastern 
slope of Balsam Mountain is an almost unbroken forest, 
approximately 5 miles square; but the long, narrow strip 
of woodland on Iron Mountain is considerably broken by 
clearings and burns, while the portions of Pond Mountain 
and White Top draining into New River have on them 
only remnants of the old forest. 

Scattered among the clearings of the valley are wood 
lots, left usual!}' on ridges and north slopes. 

Ccnivposition. — The trees of these forests are principall}' 
oaks and chestnut, with a mixture of white pine, hemlock, 
black spruce, black gum, cherrv, poplar, ash, cucumber, 
buckej'e, linn, maple, birch, and man}" unimportant species. 
Altogether there are about SO species of trees. 

Condition. — All the forest is inferior in condition, being 
either culled, fire scarred, or full of old and defective trees, 
while a dense undergrowth usually covers the steep slopes. 

The condition of these neglected forests would improve 
readily under forestry, as valuable species are abundant 
and reproduce easily and grow rapidly wherever they have 
an opportunit}-. The outlying isolated wood lots, sur- 
rounded by cleared land and held bj' thoughtful fai-mers. 
are noticeably in better condition than the larger wild 
areas in the remote mountains. 



SOUTH FORK OF HOLSTON BIVER ( SOUTHERN TRIBU- 
TARY BASINS ONLY). 

[238,000 acres; 80 per cent wooded.] 

Topography. xhis area comprises the northern slope of the mountains 
between Watauga and New rivers, and is principally a 
long, narrow strip of steep mountain side, having- a north- 



SOUTHERN' APPALACHIAN REGION. 



71 



Soil. 



ward exposure and an altitude of 2,50() to nearly 6,000 
feet. In addition to this uniform tract, this drainage sys- 
tem comprises the semicircular interrupted basin drained 
by Beaver. Tennessee Laurel, Green Cove, and White 
Top Laurel creeks, which join and cut through the moun- 
tains near Damascus. 

In this area are two distinct classes of land — mountain 
slopes and alluvial or sedimentary basins. The mountain 
slopes, steep and principally underlaid b)^ quartzite, have 
light soil, with thorough drainage both on surface and 
underground, while the sedimentarj^ valleys — as Holston 
River bottoms, Shadj^ Valley, Laurel Bloomery, and 
others — have deep, loamy soils, remarkably fertile. 

On the Tennessee Laurel substantially all the arable Agriculture 
land is under cultivation, but along Shady Valle}^ and 
White Top Laurel on'iy a small portion of the arable land 
is cleared. The Holston River bottom is cleared to the 
foothills of the mountain. This land is well adapted to 
diversified fai-ming, but is now devoted principally to corn 
and grazing. 

Erosion is less marked in this area than in most others, Erosion. 
a fact which is probably due to the larger proportion of 
wooded area. 

The Tennessee Laurel is, however, subject to sudden 
rises, endangering the narrow bottom lands and even the 
lives of travelers who must cross the numerous fords in 
the gorge. There is also much erosion of soil localh' on 
the older neglected fields of the tributaries of the Tennes- 
see Laurel and on the poor portions of the foothills of 
Holston Mountain. 

Excepting a few mountain pastures, all the mountain The forest. 
ridges are wooded, and both east and west of Damascus 
are large areas of unbroken forest, covering both mountain 
and valley. The north slope of Holston Mountain also 
remains entirelj' wooded. 

The forest of this drainage varies, naturally, with the 
soil, altitude, and exposure, and has also been seriously 
modified b}' fires. The northward slopes of Holston and 
Iron mountains are lightl}^ timbered with oaks, black pine, 
chestnut, gum, etc., with some hemlock and white pine in 
ravines, nearl}^ all culled. The .southward slopes of the 
same mountains, and especially the lower portions of these 
slopes, are better wooded, except as cleared or deadened 
for grazing, and have some heavy stands of hemlock and 
white pinie, among which hardwoods are freelj' distributed. 



72 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

The steep .slopes west of Damascus and east of Como 
Gap are in a very inferior forest condition, owing largely 
to the long-continued prevalence of tires, which have not 
onlj' prevented a vigoi'ous growth, but have even driven 
out the niost valuable species. 

The trees of the ridges and north slopes are short and 
crooked, and as a rule the land is very imperfectly stocked 
and also very brushy. The forests of some of the tribu- 
tary basins are in excellent condition, having more mois- 
ture and better soil and having been less injured by fire. 

Except on the driest portions, lands cut or burned over 
are quickly restocked with valuable species, while the dry 
ridges and summits are soon occupied by chestnut and oak 
sprouts or by black pine, gum, sourwood, or trees of 
similar value. 

Prevention of fire and judicious thinning would soon 
develop a valuable forest on these northern slopes, where 
now there is very little material that is marketable. 

■WATAUGA BIVEE BASIN. 

[441,000 acres: 66 per cent wooded.") 

Topography. T^aig basin, tributary to the Holston, lies almost entirely 
within the Appalachian mountain region. The main 
source of the river is on Grandfather Mountain, a promi- 
nent peak of the Blue Ridge, while the last mountain gorge 
is passed near Elizabethton, Tenn., where the river leaves 
the mountains. The highest points of this basin are Hol- 
ston Mountain, 4,300 feet; Snake Mountain, 5,594 feet; 
Rich Mountain, 5,369 feet; Grandfather Mountain, 5,964 
feet; Beech Mountain, 5,222 feet; Yellow Mountain. 5.600 
feet; Roan Mountain, 6,313 feet, and Ripshin Mountain, 
4,800 feet. These are on the borders. The interior por- 
tion is broken into many subordinate ridges, reaching an 
altitude of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, with deep, narrow vallej^s 
eroded down to an altitude of 3,000 to 2,000 feet. 

Derived directly from granite, gneiss, and schist, by 
decomposition, the .soil of the mountains and ridges has 
been fertile, much of it very fertile loam of excellent 
phj'sical as well as chemical composition. Washing, how- 
ever, has carried much of the desirable material down to 
the valleys and left the soil of the ridges inferior, espe- 
cially on .southward slopes. The valley soil is of two 
general classes, (1) the red cla3'ey loam of the lower foot- 
hills and (2) alluvial bottom land, some of which is too 



Soil 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



73 



Erosion. 



porous or too stony, but mostlj' excellent farm land. Alto- 
gether, the newly cleared soil is very good, but many 
burned ridges and old washed fields are in a very poor 
condition, notably in the valley of Little Doe. 

Along Stony, Cove, and Roane creeks, Doe Eiver, the Agriculture. 
main Watauga, and many minor vallej^s are excellent 
large farms, growing corn, wheat, rye, oats, grass, and 
vegetables. On almost everj^ creek and in man}- of the 
mountain coves are families depending upon the farm for 
the gTeater portion or all of their living. While much 
has been cleared that would be better adapted to timber 
growing if a timber market were within reach, there is 
altogether a large area that is best adapted to farming. 
It is safe to saj' that a broad economic policy would have 
little or no more forest land cleared than is now under 
cultivation, and that attention should be given to keeping 
what land is cleared in good condition rather than to clear- 
ing more to be exhausted and washed until worthless. 

In this basin it is estimated that the average damage by 
erosion during the season of 1901 to farm land has been 
not less than %1 per acre. This amounts to over $200,000 
for the whole basin. 

Damages to railroads amounted to $250,000, 19 bridges 
and about 25 miles of track being washed out. 

The damage to wagon roads can hardly be estimated. 
In manj^ places entirely new roads were necessary. The 
damage was probably $500,000 altogether. 

Buildings and pei-sonal propertj' destroyed swell the 
total loss to something like $2,000,000. 

Distribution. — The remaining forests are on the ridges 
and mountain ranges and spurs. These are somewhat 
dotted with clearings, especially in the granitic region 
south of the Iron Mountain Gorge and along the north 
slope of Beech Mountain and the Elk Creek Basin. The 
lowlands have been almost entirel}' cleared. 

Composition. — The hard woods, in which the oaks and 
chestnut predominate, form a mixed forest on most of 
the area; some ravines carry hemlock almost exclusively, 
and on some of the ridges white pine is one of the prin- 
cipal timber trees. Spruce is found almost exclusively in 
some high mountain groups, while beech rules in zones on 
high mountains and on the crests of some ridges. 

Condition. — Nearh^ all of the forest has been or is being 
culled of its most valuable timber, and is rapidlj^ becom- 
ing inferior b}' the predominance of old and defective 



The forest. 



74 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

trees and undesirable species. Fires are j^reventing a 
good growth on large portions, although they are seldom 
so severe as to kill much timber. The few areas that are 
in good forest condition are merely enough to illustrate 
what forestrj^ might do. 

Reproduction. — Vigorous sprouts, seedlings, and sap- 
lings abound on old cuttings and burns, and prevention 
of fire and some judicious thinning would soon develop 
a forest that would justify transportation companies in 
building railroads to haul its products to market. 



NOLICHUCKY RIVER BASIN. 

[»69,920 acres; 76 per cent wooded.] 

Topography. A large portion of this basin lies within the mountain 
region. Its three principal tributaries. North Toe, South 
Toe. and Canej' rivers, as well as several creeks of large 
size, are entirelj' between the rims. Mount Mitchell, the 
highest peak east of the Rocky Mountains, and Roan 
Mountain, well known by "Cloudland," the highest hotel 
of the East, are both on the borders of this basin. In the 
central part is a large portion of hilly agricultural land, 
and along creeks are many narrow strips of flat, alluvial 
bottom. In cutting through the northwestern rim of the 
plateau, however, the streams have worn long, deep gorges 
through the Unicoi and parallel mountain ranges, and the 
narrow tributary valleys of this portion of the basin have 
rapid torrential streams, very little bottom land, or none, 
and very steep and rocky mountain slopes. 

Soil. The soil is in general very good, especially that of the 

lower portion of the interior basin, which was evident^ 
deposited as a sediment before the gorge was cut to its 
present depth. The mountain coves also contain deep, 
dark loam, which is very fertile. Some of the ridges, 
however, have a light, shallow soil, owing to erosion of 
humus and loose earth. 

Agriculture. Twenty-four per cent of this basin is cleared land, most 
of which is grazed, although much of it is well adapted to 
diversified farming, which is unprofitable now because of 
distance from market. 

Erosion A great drawback to agriculture is found in the cutting 

away of uncovered hill fields by the dasning rains and the 
deposition of the eroded material on other fields in the 
bottoms. The floods of the Nolichucky are well known., 
Thej^ may be partly due to the topographic configuration 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 75 

of the area, by reason of which a rise of the three main 
tributaries at one time ma}' cause a flood in the river. 
There is no room for doubt, liowever, that • the large 
amount of cleared land in this basin greatly increases the 
floods. Every resident who has known the river ten years 
or more states very positively that the volume of water is 
now much less constant than in former years. In Yancey 
County many of the steep slopes in the basins of Caney 
River, Bald Creek, and in the vicinity of Burnsville, which 
have for many successive years been planted in corn or 
small grain, are deeplj^ eroded, and some such fields have 
been abandoned. The same statement will apply to much 
steep land in Mitchell County, on the watei'S of Cane and 
Big Rock creeks, and in the vicinit}' of Red Hill. The 
lands at higher elevations, which have been retained in 
grass, are less damaged. 

The alluvial lands of the Nolichucky were severely 
washed by several freshets during the spring and summer 
of 1901, the most severe being that of May 20 to May 
23, which caused damage to land and other propertj' in 
Mitchell Countj' to the amount of $500,000 or more. All 
of the soil on the flood plain of Cane Creek, 9 miles in 
length, was removed, leaving only the large stones and 
rocks, and many tine farms on North Toe River were 
destroyed. More than twenty dwellings, several mills 
and dams, and man}' million feet of saw logs are known to 
have been washed away. In addition, the damage to the 
public highways was $50 or more per mile, aggregating 
f50,000, while the railroad sustained an equal loss in the 
injury to roadbed, bridges, and culverts. (See PI. 
XXXV (b) showing wreckage from Mitchell County, 
lodged near Erwin, Tenn.) 

Although greatly broken by clearings, large areas of Th« forest. 
woodland remain on the Unicoi and parallel ranges on the 
northwestern border, on Roan Mountain, the Blue Ridge, 
the Black Mountain group, and the western tributaries of 
Caney River. In composition there is great variet}-. 
Spruce and balsam prevail on the highest portions of the 
Black, Roan, and Sampson mountain groups. Hemlock, 
birch, maple, cucumber, ash, buckeye, linn, and other 
moisture-loving trees line the ravines, while oak, chestnut, 
gum, and other hard woods cover the ridges of the higher 
altitudes. Oak and pine form a less dense cover, usually 
very brush}', on the ridges of lower altitude. 



76 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 

In forest conditions there is also great variety, dependent 
largely upon the prevalence of fire. Fires are freely set 
during autumn, winter, and spring, and great injury to 
timber, forest seedlings, and soil results. A large propor- 
tion of the timber trees are defective, and much of the 
woodland area is imperfectly stocked. 

The reproduction of trees is remarkably vigorous on 
cuttings, burns, and old fields, and growth is rapid. The 
prevention of fire and the application of improvement 
cuttings would wonderfully increase the value of the for- 
est, which is the great natural resource of the mountainous 
portion of this basin. 



Topography. 



Soil. 



Agriculture. 



FRENCH BROAD RIVER BASIN (NORTH OF SKYLAND). 

[555,840 acres; 51 per cent in forest, besides wood lots.''] 

This long and wide crescent-shaped valley heads on the 
Blue Ridge, whi(-h it drains from Swannanoa Gap to 
Panther Tail Mountain (62 mile.s) and reaches entirely 
across the highlands, which it leaves near the Tennessee 
line, about 80 miles from its source. Around the borders 
of this basin are the Craggy Mountains, Swannanoa 
Mountains, and Estatoe, Panther Tail, Pizgah, and Max 
Patch peaks, all high, fore.st-covered mountains. In 
Madison County, where the river has cut through the 
northwestern rim of the region, is a large area of broken, 
mountainous ridges, with verj^ steep and rockj^ slopes. A 
great portion of the interior basin, however, is smooth 
enough and fertile enough for grazing or farming. 

The soil is extremely variable, though in general very 
good. That of the lower hills is a red clay, a fine sedimentary 
deposit. It is fertile and recuperates readily, but erodes 
rapidly when uncovered. The ridge land, as usual, is well 
adapted to grass, but if closel}' pastured erodes rapidly 
and soon becomes worthless. The best soil is found in the 
coves and on the broad alluvial bottoms which border the 
river and its larger tributaries from the Blue Ridge in the 
southeast to the head of the gorge near Marshall. 

Substantially all the lowland is occupied by farmers, and 
many of the plantations are very productive and well 
adapted to mixed farming. This is, in lact, one of the 
best agricultural valleys to be found in the East. The 
principal difiiculties to be met are erosion of surface soil 

"These wood lots are small and scattered so as to make it difficult to 
estimate their aggregate area. 



SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



77 



Erosion. 



on the hills and destructive floods on the bottoms. Much 
of the mountain region is also under cultivation. The cove 
lands are mostly cleared, and cleared mountain-side pas- 
tures dot the landscape, as viewed from every high point. 

This basin is no exception to the rule for the region. 
Tobacco-growing on the lighter soils of the hills exhausted 
field after field, and finally the whole industry was aban- 
doned, leaving large areas of desolate land exposed to the 
cutting action of raindrops and to gullj'ing b}' running 
water. The same pi'ocess has been in operation on old 
farm land and pastures, until on many small tracts, as on 
the southward slopes of Povert}' Hollow, near Barnards- 
ville, there is but little soil left. There is hardly a farm 
in the entire basin that is not more or less gullied, although 
much care is taken bj- a few of the more thoughtful farmers 
to keep the earth covered by a vigorous crop. The inun- 
dations of the bottom lands are also seriously damaging, 
and the general testimonj^ is that thej- increase as more 
land is cleared. 

There is evident need of every protection against ero- 
sion in this valle}', where so manj^ people and so much 
valuable property are concerned, and where sudden heavy 
downpoui's of rain are common. 

DiKtrihution. — The higher mountains are still forested. The forest. 
and the ridges and slopes above 3,000 feet are mostly 
covered, although some of the ridges, as Elk, Spring Creek, 
and New Found ridges have on them large proportions of 
cleared land, and the mountain sides are often dotted with 
clearings. 

Com,2X)sition. — In this region we have a mixed forest, in 
which the oaks and chestnuts predominate, with a sprink- 
ling of white pine, hemlock, linn, gum, beech, birch, 
maple, ash, hickory, Shortleaf pine, poplar, cherry, wal 
nut, and many other species of less importance. 

Condition.— ^&siAes the usual inferior condition of the 
natural forest, fires, grazing, and culling have greatly 
reduced its original qualit3\ Bordering the farms are 
many fine stands of sapling second growth, but the 
remote mountains are full of defective trees and brush. 

ReprodMction. — Sprouts and seedlings spring up readil3^ 
White pine, shortleaf pine, poplar, ash, walnut, and cherry 
all abound in the forests in the form of promi.sing young 
trees. Sumac and locust here reproduce rapidlj^ and 
are well adapted to cover and prevent erosion on the old 
fields. 



78 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



The farmers need to be taught that to recuperate their 
lands, instead of letting them stand bare and idle '"to rest," 
they should grow clover and cowpeas on them, and always 
keep them covered as much as possible. 



BIG PIGEON RIVER BASIN. 



[346,-140 acres; ?9 per cent wooded.] 



Topography. Bjg Pigeon River rises among the Balsam and Pizgah 
mountains, cuts its way through the Unaka Mountains, 
and join^ the French Broad on the Tennessee Plain. It 
drains an interior agricultural basin which is oval in out- 
line, the longer axis northwest, parallel to the general 
course of the stream, and almost entirely within the Apjya- 
lachian Mountain region. It is circumscribed by lofty 
mountains, with many peaks more than 6,000 feet in alti- 
tude. Many minor ranges, springing from the surround- 
ing mountains, converge toward the middle of the basin, 
dividing it into deep, narrow valleys, except near its upper 
end between the towns of Canton and Waynesville, where 
there is a broad, open valley of alluvial plains and rolling 
hills, dotted with low mountains. 

Soil. The soils are loams and sandy loams, mosth' fine grained 

in texture, derived from gneiss and schists, though in the 
mountains thej^ are more siliceous and coarser — there the 
product of decomposed sandstones, quartzite, and con- 
glomerates. 

This basin is eminently adapted to grass, except where 
very sandj^, and grass is the chief product of the region. 
Corn ranks next in importance; while the cultivation of 
wheat is largeh' confined to the broad valley of the Pigeon, 
between Canton and Ferguson, and to the Richland and 
Fines Creek valleys. Apples are extensive^ raised and 
have a wide reputation for their quality, and truck farm- 
ing is yearly assuming greater importance. 

The alluvial valley lands have been little injured by 
freshets, and the soils of the uplands, with few exceptions, 
have not sufiered severely from erosion, though a few 
badly gullied slopes, due to the continuous cultivation of 
corn, are to be seen in the older settlements. 

Tbe forest. The scarlet, black, and white oaks, associated with black 

pine, formed at one time an extensive forest on the hills 
between Canton and Waynesville, but this land, where not 
under cultivation, is now in second-growth forest. The 
forests of the mountains are of typical mixed Appalachian 



Agriculture. 



Erosion. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

hard woods, with, in the Balsam and Pizgah i-idges, a small 
amount of black spruce at high elevations, and some white 
pine in the lower part of the basin. These forests have 
been culled only of the most valuable timbers. 

Ail species reproduce excellently under the proper 
light conditions; and with exclusion of fire and a judi- 
cious system of lumbering there would be no difficulty in 
perpetuating this forest and increasing the proportion of 
valuable species in its composition. 



79 



NORTHWESTERN SLOPE OF SMOKY MOUNTAINS. 

[254,720 acreg; 91 per cent wooded. J 

This tract is a mountain side between altitudes of 1,600 Topography. 
and 6.700 feet, and is drained by Little Pigeon and Little 
rivers into Holston River, and b}^ Abrams Creek into 
Little Tennessee River. The surface is eroded into fan- 
shaped basins, very steep, and often precipitous near the 
summit, with high, narrow ridges dividing the main 
drainage basins. There is no alluvial land of consequence 
except at Briar Cove, Gatlinburg, Tuckaleechee Cove and 
Cades Cove. 

In general the soil is light-colored and shallow, espe- son. 
ciallj^ on the ridges and steep slopes. In the coves, how- 
ever, and along the foot of the ridges where the slope is 
more gentle, humus has accumulated and the soil is fer- 
tile. In general physical quality the soil is loam or clay 
loam. 

Corn is the principal farm crop, and 50 bushels per acre Agriculture. 
are sometimes grown on the best lowlands. This land can 
not compete with the alluvial river bottoms, however. 
Most of it is farmed only because it is cheap land and 
affords a chance for a poor man to make a living (by hard 
work.) The higher altitudes are favorable to fruit, grass, 
and vegetables, and also to stock raising in a limited de- 
gree, as cattle ma3=' roam in the woods and subsist on seed- 
lings, shrubs, and weeds, and hogs in occasional years find 
abundant mast. 

In general, the earth is fairly well covered, and thus pro- Erosion. 
tected from erosion, but the few old pastures are worn and 
gullied here, as elsewhere on hilh' land. 

In this region streams heading in unbroken forest are 
notablj^ clear and their banks show little fluctuation in 
volume of water, while those from cleared lands are muddy 
and inconstant. 



80 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



While present erosion is limited, there is evidence that 
it would be very great if large areas of the earth were 
uncovered. 
The forest. Distrihutio7i.^-Ys\th. the exception of a few "balds," or 
grassy areas on the higher summits, and the alluvial lands 
of the lower coves and creek valleys, the forest of this 
great mountain side is practicallj^ unbroken. 

Com2Wsition. —The species of trees growing here nuin- 
ber over 100, an unusuallj^ large number for one locality. 
Northern and southern trees are close neighbors, and all 
may be studied in travei'sing the different zones of altitude 
from 1,500 to 6,700 feet, instead of the necessary 1,000 
miles of latitude at an altitude of 1,000 feet. Almost 
ever}' tree enumerated in the accompanying list (p. 93) 
grows here. 

Condition. — While some remarkably fine timber trees 
are here, the general average is far inferior to what might 
be grown with so favorable a soil and climate. Fire, graz- 
ing, and culling have reduced this forest considerably 
below its natural condition. Imperfect trees and inferior 
species are abundant, while some of the burns and cattle 
ranges are very deficient in stand. 

Reproduction. — Hardly any other forest in the country 
would respond so readilj' to the forester's care and demon- 
strate so plainly that nearly all of this tract is best adapted 
to timber growing. 

LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER BASIN. 



Topography. 



[1,018,054 acres; 91 per cent wooded.] 

Little Tennessee River with its tributaries drains a 
large area, extending from the Blue Ridge on the south to 
the Great Smoky Mountains on the north, including all of 
the territory between the basins of Big Pigeon and Hiwas- 
see rivers. Its larger tributaries are the Tuckasegee from 
the east, the Oconalufty from the northeast, the Cheoah 
from the southwest, and the Nantahala from the south, 
while the upper portion of the Tennessee drains the 
extreme southern portion, heading on top of the Blue 
Ridge. These waters pass through the Tennessee into the 
Ohio River. 

The upper or southern part of the basin lying on the 
northwest slope of the Blue Ridge is an elevated plateau 
region, having an altitude of more than 3,000 feet, with 
low, rounded granite knobs and few high summits, and 
broad alluvial flats, the deposit of the slow streams. The 
Balsam, Great Smoky, and Unaka mountains, with many 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LVl. 





V 


!» 


fcx«. 




\ 


^^ 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^H^^i^ ' c 


-If '% ■ \ 


1 


in 


HB:'"'''' 




\ 

^s^ 

M. 


1 


, , 


■ 


a^M^BBip^ 


bHIk 


1 


IgP^^ 




^S 


1 


1^ 


Ir 


■H 


% 


9 


^^^^^^1^ 




s^^^^^^l 


'^^^^^^IH 


1^' nnK^K dridUKj^^^^K? 


»'■■ 1 


r^^&'^iHHi 


V'v 


^^^Ir 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 



81 



crests moi'e than 6,000 feet high, form the watershed on 
the north and west, and from thesedescend into the northern 
portion of the basin many swift streams, wliich have carved 
deep narrow valleys, leaving high intervening ridges with 
steep and rugged slopes. The watersheds between several 
of these streanas are high and rough mountains, especially 
in the Cheoah, Nantahala, and Cowee ranges. The lower 
part of the basin includes some of the most rugged land in 
the southern Appalachians, with only a ver}' small part 
suited for tillage, and few alluvial bottoms; but in the 
upper part much of the mountain land is not steep, and 
there are several large and fertile valleys. 

The soils in the upper part of the basin are sandy, sou. 
derived from granite, or in the Little Tennessee River, 
around and above Franklin, where most of the good farms 
are located, from schists, and are deep and fertile red 
loams. In the narrow valley's around the high mountains, 
where sandstones, c[uartzite, and conglomerates prevail, 
the soils are generalh' thin and sandy, and poor agricul- 
turally", but on north slopes and in hollows are well suited 
to forests. The alluvial bottom lands along many of the 
streams are also light and sandy, though those of the 
Little Tennessee are silts of the finest texture. 

All of the land available for tillage has been cleared. Agriculture. 
Corn is the staple crop on both alluvium and upland, the 
yield of small grain, grass, and apples being much smaller 
than in other mountain counties farther north. At high 
altitudes and on some of the stiffer soils grass thrives, but 
on the whole the soils are too light and too subject to 
drought for either grazing or forage grasses. Orchards 
have been planted, but are much neglected, and only a 
few apples are produced for market. 

]\Iuch of the best ^■alle^' land has been badly washed. Erosion. 
especially on Tuckasegee River and Scott Creek. There 
are also man}' badly worn steep slopes on these streams 
and elsewhere. 

In general, the mountain ranges and spurs, and also the The forest, 
ridge lands of the valley's, are still principally wooded, 
although many clearings are found in mountain coves and 
on mountain slopes. 

The principal clearings, however, are on and about the 
alluvial lands, which appear on the map like broken chains 
along the larger tributaries. 

The lai'gest unbroken forest areas lie on Oconalufty, 

*S. Doc. 8i 6 



8 '2 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Cheoah, and Tuckasegee rivers, in the northern, north- 
western, and northeastern parts of the basin, though thei'e 
are some areas of fine forest at the head of Nantahala and 
Little Tennessee rivers, in the southern part of the basin. 
At lower elevations the forests are of oaks and hickories, 
associated with black pine. On the thin soil of the slopes 
along the Blue Ridge small scarlet and white oaks, with 
occasional bodies of hemlock, form the forest, while else- 
where in the mountains typical Appalachian hardwoods 
prevail, with some few thousand acres of black spruce 
capping the highest summits of the Smoky and Balsam 
mountains. The best timber has been much culled for 
20 miles from the Southern Railway, which crosses the 
middle of the basin. Repeated forest fires, started with a 
view to improve the pasturage, have destroj^ed much tim- 
ber on drj' south slopes , and by continued su]3pression of 
the young growth have greatly reduced the densit}'. 
Repi'oduction, however, is good, and if the open woods 
were protected there would soon be a fine j'oung growth 
beneath the old trees. Proper distribution of species 
could easily be secured by judicious cutting while logging. 

HIWASSEE RIVER BASIN. 

[223,456 acres; 71 per cent wooded.] 

Topography. rpj^jg drainage is tributary to the Tennessee River, which 
the Hiwassee joins above Chattanooga, and comprises the 
eastern tributaries of Hiwassee River above Murphy, 
equivalent to the western slope of the mountainous divide 
between Little Tennessee and Hiwassee rivers, which 
divide is a cross range between the Blue Ridge and the 
Smoky Mountains. The altitude of this tract ranges be- 
tween 1,.500 and 5,000 feet. Spurs from 5 to 20 miles 
long reach from the divide toward the river, while deep 
valleys extend from the river far into the mountains. 

The mountain sides are steep and often rocky, while the 
creek valleys, of which there are six prominent ones, have 
considerable areas of alluvial flats and rolling foothills. 

Soil- Even the alluvial flats along the rivers and creeks have 

a large proportion of claj^, and the foothills are almost 
entirely clay. The mountain sides are loamy, the coves 
very fertile, and the soils of the ridges light, often stony. 

Agriculture. Corn is the principal grain crop. Grass does well on 
low alluvial lands and in mountain coves, but burns out 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



83 



on the foothills. There are some fine farms on Valley 
River, Peach Tree, Tusquitee, Shooting-, Tiger, and High- 
tower creeks, but large areas of hill land are worn out and 
abandoned to broom grass. 

This basin, or part of it; seems unusually liable to floods, 
as is shown by the cutting of banks and the washing of 
fields. About the head of Peach Tree Creek, in 1900, 
several "waterspouts" are said to have occurred at one 
time, and the water from these joining formed a torrent 
that swept across fields and roads, doing great damage. 
Evidences of similar floods and of great erosion on old 
fields are to be found in almost every mile of travel. 

The uselessness of clearing the ridge lands has been dis- 
covered by the farmers, and no advances of cleared land 
have recently been made toward the mountains, but many 
old fields lie wasted and wearing away, scantily patched 
with broom grass, persimmon, and sassafras. 

Distribution. — The mountains and spurs are principally 
forest -covered, although here and there clearings have 
been made in coves and along the tributarj^ creeks. The 
larger creek valleys and the river A'allej^ are principally 
cleared. 

Comj)ositioii. — In this region is found a suggestion of 
the difl'erence between the forest of the cool highlands 
and that of the southern slope of the Blue Ridge. In 
passing from the highlands we are leaving the region 
of most vigorous tree growth and approaching the piny 
regions. Oaks and hickories are more numerous, but 
shorter and smaller; hemlock and white pine are less 
abundant; the birches and hard maples become rare, and 
the southern red maple, pitch pine, and shortleaf pine 
more abundant. 

Condition. — In condition, too, there is a noticeable con- 
trast. Fires have been more prevalent and have kept 
decaying vegetation prettj^ thoroughly consumed. Fires 
have killed less timber, but have done no less damage by 
preventing that new growth which perpetuates the natural 
forest. 

On isolated wood lots and near clearings are many tracts 
of thrift}^ saplings, but the general forest condition, owing 
to fire and grazing, is inferior to that of the plateau. 

Reproduction. — The first and essential step toward the 
improvement of this forest would be the prevention of fire. 
Much of the stand is now so thin that thinnings need not 
be made at once. 



The forest. 



84 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Sprouts and .seedlings will start freely, and the forest 
would grow well as soon as the forest soil reached natural 
condition again. 

But few cattle are ranged in the mountains now, as the 
grazing has been too much reduced b}' repeated tires. 



TALLXJLAH-CHATTOOGA RIVER BASIN. 

[S4S,oSS acres; S9 per cent wooded.] 

Topography. xhis tract covcrs the entire basin of these rivers above 
their junction and drains ioto„the Atlantic through Savan- 
nah River. Lying on the southeastern slope of the Blue 
Ridge, the altitude varies from 5,500 feet on Standing- 
Indian, 5.100 feet on Ridgepole, 4,769 on Scal_v Mountain, 
and 4,931 feet on White Sides to 1,000 feet at the junc- 
tion of the Tallulah and Chattooga rivers. Many of the 
peaks and spurs are exti'emeh' bold, and there are numer- 
ous deep gorges and canyons. Along the creeks, espe-. 
cially along the Upper Tallulah and its tributaries, are 
alluvial bottoms of considerable area. Nearly all of the 
cleared land (11 per cent of entire tract) of this system 
is on creek bottoms. 

^°''' Derived from gneiss and granite, the soil is generally 

of good physical composition, except in the foothills, 
where a stiff red claj- predominates, which erodes readily 
and is hard to cultivate. 

The bottom lands are loamj' and fairly fertile, but the 
ridges have been so much burned and washed that on them 
the soil is light colored, thin, and poor. 

Agriculture. Corn is the principle crop. Grass, except in the higher 
altitudes, does not hold. Sweet potatoes, cane, and cotton 
are grown along the southern limit of this tract. Peaches 
do well in the lower altitudes, and apples are grown on the 
mountains. 

Erosion. -pj^g impervious clays of the foothills are frequently 

found barren and gullied, because left uncovered. The 
mountain ridges, having many stones and pebbles in their 
soil, resist erosion much better than the claj's, but this 
advantage is counteracted In' the steepness of their slopes, 
and the Ijed of every rivulet is eroded to the underlying- 
rock. The creek bottoms are hardly less liable to damage. 
Sudden downpours of rain (11 inches have been known to 
fall in forty-eight hours) often cau.se such rises in the 
creeks as to cover the fields with gravel or cut them awaj^. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



85 



Distribution. — AH this tract is forest land except the 
creek bottoms and a few mountain coves, which have been 
cleared and together amount to 11 per cent of the area. 
The denser portions are in the coves at the higher altitudes. 

Composition. — There is a noticeable contrast between 
the forests of the interior mountain region and of those 
of this region about the headwaters of the Tallulah and 
Chattooga rivers. Here the oaks are in greater predomi- 
nance, and the hickories and Southern pines are more 
abundant, while beech, birch, maple, buckej^e, and other 
lovers of oool air and abundant moisture are notably less. 
White pine and hemlock hold to the higher altitude, but 
are noticeablj^ rare along the foothills. 

Condition. — In condition, also, the forest is inferior to 
that of the highlands. The injuries bj' tire are greater. 
The rate of growth is further retarded by drought, and 
probabl}^ b}' occasional spring frosts killing buds and 
young leaves. The greater portion is in the condition of 
natural forest, with many old, crooked, fire-scarred, and 
otherwise defective trees and inferior species, and with 
subordinate saplings, crooked and retarded. Because of 
prevalent fires the stand is imperfect, many spaces being 
covered with mere brush where a stand of good timber is 
possible. Along the line of the old railroad grade from 
Walhalla to Rabun Gap much burning was done at the 
time of grading, and now the portion then severeh' burned 
is covered with a dense stand of saplings, principallj' oaks 
and hickory. 

Rej)7'oduction. — The absence of protection from fire on 
its drj^ slopes would be the main difiicult}^ in bringing this 
forest into good condition, as sprouts and seedlings spring 
up quickly where fire can be prevented. 

The efl'ect of the no-fence law is plainly noticeable south 
of the Chattooga River, where the forest is more severely 
injured by fires, which are there fiercer because of more 
combustible material. 



The iorest. 



TOXAWAY RIVEB BASIN. 

[52,243 acres; 95 per cent wooded ] 

This basin drains into the Atlantic through Savannah Topography. 
River. The headwaters rise far back in and in fact have, by 
erosion, almost worked their way through the Blue Ridge. 

The principal peaks about the headwaters are: Sheep 
Cliff, i,653feet; Double Knob, 4, -117 feet; Great Hogback, 
4,700 feet, and Cold Mountain, i,500 feet. The descent 



86 



SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



Soil. 



Agriculture. 



Erosion. 



The forest. 



from these peaks is rapid and amounts to 3,500 feet in 6 
miles on the Toxawa}-. There are few prominent points 
within the basin, but the canj-ons are deeply eroded, and 
cascades are almost continuous along the Whitewater, 
Horsepasture, and other tributaries. 

Derived from gnei.ss, and in general well forested, the 
soil is fertile. It is usuallj' a loam of good ph3'sical qual- 
ity. The ridge land is, of course, less fertile, yet is capable 
of sfrowing valuable timber. 

The few clearings that have been made yield good crops 
of grass and corn, but the roughness and steepness of the 
surface will prevent any extensive farming in this portion 
of this drainage. 

So little of the land has been cleared that eroded fields 
are not a prominent feature of the landscape, as in many 
other localities, but enough has been cleared to show what 
the effect would be. 

The soil, having numerous pebbles in it, does not erode 
by rainfall as readily as clay or sand, but, on the other 
hand, the slopes are so steep and the torrents so fierce 
that it would be unwise to uncover any but the gentlest 
slopes and the most fertile soil. 

The forest of this tract is but slightly broken, only .5 per 
cent being cleared. The northern portion, lying well up on 
the Blue Ridge, has substantially the same species as the 
foi-est of the highlands. The oaks, hemlock, and white 
pine predominate. Chestnut, ash, hickory and gum are 
also abundant. Lower on the slopes the oaks, hickories, 
and black and yellow pines become more prominent. 

The forests of this region are variable. The\' have been 
seriously injured bj- fires, and as a result have some large 
openings on the ridges. Rhododendron and kalmia con- 
stitute a dense undergrowth in the hollows. Defective 
trees are abundant throughout, but the stand of valuable 
species is poor. 

Improvement in forest condition maj^ be rather more 
difficult here than elsewhere,, owing to abundance of brush 
and the liability to fire. White and shortleaf pine are the 
most promising species for a future forest. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



87 



SALUDA RIVER BASIN. 

[30,796 acres; 94 per cent wooded.] 
ANT) 



FIRST AND SECOND BROAD RIVER BASIN. 

[54,400 acres; 80 per cent wooded.] 

The small portion.s of these two drainage systems exam- 
ined are so similar they may be described together. Both 
lie on the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, and both 
drain into the Atlantic through Santee River. 

The Blue Ridge at the heads of these basins is low — Topography, 
about 3,000 feet — and the lowest land covered bj' these 
descriptions is about 1,200 feet. The slopes drained by 
the Saluda are steep and often precipitous, and include 
Table Rock and Cfesars Head, both bold rocky points, 
affording two of the grandest views in the whole region. 
The cascades and falls through the glens of South Saluda 
and other creeks ai'e very pretty. There is very little 
alluvial land on the creeks until they reach the plain at the 
foot of the Blue Ridge. The slojaes drained bj' the Broad 
rivers are more moderate. The spurs here reach out long 
distances toward the plains, while between these spurs are 
rapid but seldom cascading creeks, with somewhat inter- 
rupted alluvial bottom lands. 

In both regions the soils are derived from granite. Son. 
gneiss, and schi.sts, which, vA^hen they remain in place, 
make excellent land, but when washed and the finer .sedi- 
ments left in one place, the coarser in another, become 
less desirable, as the clays thus formed are too stiff', too 
impervious to water, and too hard to work, while the 
gravels are too porous and too light. 

Corn and cane are the principal crops of this region. Agriculture. 
Some grass is grown on the small clearings in the higher 
altitudes, and some inferior orchards are seen. Sweet 
potatoes are grown on everj^ plantation, and a few small 
cotton fields were found on the edge of the plain. 

The lack of grass on most of this area leaves the siir- Erosion. 
face exposed to the cutting action of falling rain, and the 
eroding effect is so severe and so evident that, in the foot- 
hills, no one attempts agriculture upon the ridges. Even 
the gentler slopes on the border of the alluvial bottoms 
are often gullied until they have become not onlj' worth- 
less themselves, but are a source of damage to the bottom 



88 



The forest. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

lands below, which receive the material washed from 
them. (See PI. LXVll.) 

The slight protection furnished by the frequently burned 
forests does not prevent the washing away of the humus 
from the woods, and being so light, it is carried far down 
the stream to still waters before it finds a lodging place. 

Substantiallj- all the ridges and steeper slopes are for- 
ested more or less densely, while the creek bottoms are 
cleared. The cleared area on the Saluda comprises 6 per 
cent of that basin, while 20 per cent of the area of the 
Broad basins is cleared. 

In composition these forests are principally oaks and 
hickory, with a sprinkling of nearh' all other species men- 
tioned in the accompanying list (p. 93). 

In condition these forests are very inferior. There is 
very little log timber. Many of the trees are fire-scarred; 
many, though old, are small because fire and erosion of 
humus have retarded growth. Much of the area has a 
deficient stand, because fires have killed seedlings. 

To improve this forest it would be necessary to prevent 
fire and possibly to thin out defective trees and undesir- 
able species. The species to be favored here are poplar, 
ash, walnut, shortleaf pine, post oak, and white oak, and, 
in the higher altitudes, white pine. 



CATAWBA RIVER BASIN. 



[321,440 acres; 82 per cent wooded.] 

Topography. This area, as here limited, includes the eastern or south- 
ern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its numerous spurs, 
from Blowing Rock southward to Edmondson Mountain, 
and is drained by the headwaters of the Catawba River, 
including Johns and Linville rivers, and the north and south 
forks of the Catawba, directly- through the Catawba River 
into the Atlantic. The elevated crest of the Blue Ridge, 
with few points on it at a lower elevation than 1,000 feet, 
and rising at Grandfather Mountain and Pinnacle to an 
elevation of more than 5,000 feet, forms the western and 
northern limits of the area; and from it extend steep, 
rugged spurs with a general north and south trend, grad- 
ually diminishing in altitude as thej' recede from the pa- 
rent range, dividing the region into numerous parallel, 
narrow, often gorge-like, valleys. This type of vallej' 
reaches its culmination in the gorge of the Linville River, 
the wildest and most picturesque stream of the southern 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LVII. 







fv«S'-"-s-.<5.. 






SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



89 



Soil. 



Appalachians, in its descent of 2,-iOOfeet in 20 miles, from 
the Linville Falls to thd foothills. The alluvial lands in 
the valle}rs, except those along- the Catawba for a few 
miles above Marion, are limited to narrow strips bordering 
the streams, or, as on the' lower Linville and many tribu- 
taries of the Johns River, are altogether lacking-. 

The soils of the uplands, derived from the decaA^ in place 
of quartzite, slates, sandstone, and gneiss, are sandj', or 
sand}' loams, and are thin and poor, with few exceptions. 
Along the larger streams the alluvia are siltj' and fertile; 
along the smaller they are sandj^ and often less productive. 

In the lower valleys corn and small grain are the com- Agriculture. 
mon crops on the alluvia; corn the exclusive crop of the 
steeper slopes. Corn, oats, grass, and apples form the 
staple crops in the elevated valleys and on slopes at high 
altitudes. 

The alluvial lands of the Johns River and the Catawbas ^rosiou. 
have been severely damaged by recent freshets, which 
have in manj^ places washed away the soil to a depth of 
several feet, leaving only the rock and gravel, while in 
other places the agricultural value has been destroj'ed by 
the deposition of beds of pure sand or coarse gravel above 
the alluvium. Soils on steep slopes which have been under 
tillage, especialh' those in corn, have also been badly dam- 
aged. 

The forests, except those of a few limited valleys at high 
elevation, are confined to the slopes, neai-ljr all of the allu- 
vial bottoms having been cleared. 

Comjxisition. — They are formed of hardwoods, chiefly ihe forest. 
oaks, associated with pines, white or black; or of mixed 
hard woods — oaks, chestnut, maple, birch, linn, ash, and 
poplar — associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and 
on some northern slopes. 

Condition. — Nearlj' all south and east slopes, especially' 
at a low elevation, have been damaged by fires to some ex- 
tent. The best hard woods have been culled from much of 
the area, and the best white pine from the lower part of 
the valle}' of the Johns River and from a portion of the 
Upper Linville. There is yet much hard wood, largely 
oak, on the headwaters of the Catawbas, Johns, and Upper 
Linville rivers. 

Reproduction. — Reproduction of hard woods is free b^^ 
stool shoots and seed, and of pine b}' seed. Protection 
from fire is greath' needed. This, with improvement cut- 
tings, would soon develop a valuable forest. 



90 



SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



YADKIN RIVER BASIN. 

[253,120 acres; 54 per cent wooded.] 

Topography. The poi'tion of the basin of this river examined includes 
the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its outh^ers 
from Bullhead Mountain southward to Blowing Rock, 
and is drained bj^ the head streams of the Yadkin and all 
of its northern tributaries eastward to and including 
Roaring River. The crest of the Blue Ridge, with an 
average elevation of more than 3,500 feet, limits the area 
on the north; and from this numerous sharp and steep 
spurs penetrate the area, dividing it into a series of nar- 
row parallel northwest-and-southeast trending basins, 
from the southern ends of which the streams emerge and 
unite to form the Yadkin, at an elevation of about 1,000 
feet. 

The topography is rough, the slopes of the ridges steep, 
and the intervening valley's narrow, showing unchecked 
natural erosion f i-om a high plateau region to a lower base 
level, in a country with rock of varjang hardness and an 
abundant rainfall. 

^™'- The alluvial lands in the valleys are narrow strips or 

small bodies, seldom more than a few acres in extent, of 
dark, sandj'-loam soils, rich in humus, and fertile, or occa- 
sionally of coarse sand and poor. The soils of the uplands, 
produced by the decomposition of slates, sandstones, and 
gneiss, are highlj- silicious and often coarse and poor. On 
north slopes and in the hollows accumulated mold adds to 
the fertility and checks the removal of the finer cla3'ey 
particles, while the povertj^ of the naturally infertile south 
slopes is augmented b}- repeated fires which destroy the 
litter and "facilitate the removal of the finer particles of 
the soil by the heavj^ rains. 

Agriculture. Com is the Staple crop, both on the alluvial lands and 
on the slopes at lower elevations; while corn, grass, and 
some apples are cultivated on the shady north slopes at 
high elevations and in the deep, cool hollows that indent 
the face of the mountain. 

Some of the alluvial bottoms have been damaged by 
being washed and gullied by freshets, or bj- the deposit of 
coarse sand and gravel brought down from the mountains. 

Erosion. Manj^ of the steep slopes, exposed to erosion by the naked 
cultivation required for corn, have been gullied to the bed 
rock, and their agricultural value is temporarily destroj'ed. 
Man}' such abandoned fields are being colonized by wind- 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 91 

80wn pine seedlings, which check further erosion and 
rebuild the soil. 

The forests, which ai'e confined to the slojaes, are formed 
of hard woods, chiefly oaks, associated with pine (black, 
rarely with white) on the drier south and east slopes; and 
of mixed hard woods — oaks, chestnut, maple, poplar, linn, Tbe forest. 
and ash — associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and 
on noi'th slopes. The better forests lie to the south of 
Mulberry Gap. East of this gap the oaks and pines are 
smaller and of poorer quality, and have sufl'ered more 
from fires; but fires have also done much damage to the 
pines and oaks growing on the southward slopes. Culling 
has been carried on for many years, and much of the 
choicest timber has been removed from the bordering lands, 
even to the ver}- sources of the streams; but much oak and 
some pine yet remain. 

The hardwoods reproduce freeh^ from both stool shoots 
and seed, and the pines from seed. To prevent further 
deterioration of the forest and improve its condition, pro- 
tection from fire is necessary, while improvement cuttings 
are required in many places to x'emove woi'thless stock and 
to free young timber. 



TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 



By W. W. Ashe and H. B. Atoes. 



The following is a list of the trees growing in the Southern Appala- 
chians, with notes concerning their distribution, size, uses, and repro- 
duction. Accompanj^ing this is a list of shi-ubs indigenous to that 
region. 

White Pine {Pim/s strphus) reaches a height of 160 feet and a diameter 
of 40 inches and forms neai-ly pure groves, or is associated with 
smaller hard woods. It prefers sandy or gravelly soils on northwest 
slopes lying between 1.700 and i.OOO feet elevation. It is the most 
important timber tree in the Eastern States, for its wood is light, 
strong, and durable, and is applied to nearly all uses. It makes rapid 
growth and reproduces freely. It is most abundant, attains its maxi- 
mum size, and makes most I'apid accretion on the western slopes of 
the Smok}' and Iron mountains, especially in Shady Valley. 

Loblolly Pine {Pimm taecla) in the Appalachians reaches a height of 
80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, and is found oni}^ in the southern- 
most part of the area, below an elevation of 1,200 feet. It occurs 
chiefl}' as a second growth in old fields, and is of great value in restock- 
ing them and preventing erosion. Nearer the coast it is a timber tree 
of the first importance. 

ShortJeaf Pine {Pintis ec/iinata), reaching a height of 100 feet and 
a diameter of 36 inches, is frequent on well-drained soil below 2,000 
feet elevation, becoming more common as the altitude decreases. The 
wood is yellow, strong, and verv durable, and takes a fine finish. It 
seeds freely and reproduces abundantly under full light, often restock- 
ing old fields and waste places. It is one of the most valuable of the 
yellow pines, and forms the chief building material over much of 
this region. 

Blach Pine {Pin (w rigida) reaches a height of 90 feet and a diam- 
eter of 28 inches. It is associated with the shortleaf pine, but it is 
the more abundant at higher elevations. Like that tree, it seeds freely 
and often, and restocks waste lands. It is not so large nor so valuable 
a tree, however, and the wood is coarser, more resinous, and not so 
free from knots. It is much used as a building material. 

93 



94 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Tahle-Mountain Pine {Plnus jmngens) is a medium-sized tree, wbicK 
reaches a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It occurs on 
dry, rocky ridges between 1,500 and 3,000 feet elevation, and is most 
common along the Blue Ridge and on the Chilhowee and Holston 
mountains. It reaches its greatest size in the mountains of western 
North Carolina. It is not so large nor so valuable a tree as the short- 
leaf and black pines. Its wood is coarse and sappj'. It will grow, 
however, on dry, rocky soil where the black pine does not. It seeds 
freelj' and makes rapid growtn, at least when young. 

Scrul) Pine {Pinus virginiana) is a slender tree, seldom more than 
80 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, which is common on dry, 
sandy, or gravellj^ land below 2,000 feet elevation. It propagates 
freely and makes rapid growth. It is not large enough to be of 
importance as a timber tree, though it is occasionalh' sawn. 

Blacl: Sj>ruce {Picea mariana) is a slender tree reaching a heiglit of 
150 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is seldom found below 4.000 
feet elevation, and only around a few of the highest mountains, where 
it forms dense forests of pure growth, or is associated with hemlock 
on cold northern slopes or along cold streams. It seeds at intervals 
of several j^ears and reproduces freel}' if afforded the proper light and 
soil conditions, which are generally not produced in lumbering. The 
wood is light, but strong, and is largely used for lumber. It is the 
chief source of wood pulp for paper. It is one of the most A'aluable 
trees, and reaches its greatest individual development on the slopes of 
the Smokjr Mountains. 

Red Spruce {Picea ruhxi) is here a small tree, seldom 30 feet in 
height, and unimportant. It occurs only in a few mountain swamps. 

Hemlock {Tsuga canadensis) is one of the largest of east American 
trees, attaining a height of more than 140 feet and a diameter of 5 
feet, which is reached in the Southern Appalachians. It is common 
along streams and on cold, wet northern slopes above 1,500 feet eleva- 
tion. The bark is extensiveh' used in tanning, and the trunk supplies 
much rough lumber. Seeds are borne frequently, but reproduction 
is poor, as good reproduction requii'es a delicate adjustment of light 
and moisture conditions, which ai'e seldom furnished in lumbering. 

Carolina Ilendocl: (Tsuga caroliniana) is a smaller tree than the pre- 
ceding, and its distribution is limited to a few localities in the Southern 
Appalachians. The greatest size is attained in the mountains of North 
Carolina. It is one of the most statel}' of American conifers. 

Bahani {Abies f reiser i) attains a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 
2 feet. It is exclusively a Southern Appalachian tree, being confined 
to the summits of the highest mountains from Clingmans Dome north- 
eastward. The maximum development is attained on the high peaks 
of the Black Mountains. The wood is soft and brittle and of little 
value. A medicinal resin balsam is obtained from its bark. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 95 

Arhor vitce {Thuja occidentalii) is a small tree which occurs in the 
Southern Appalachians at only a few places, as on Cripple Creek and 
Linville River, on moist soil. 

Red Cedar {Juniperus virginiana) is a small tree, seldom more than 
50 feet in height, which is frequent below 1,500 feet elevation in old 
fields and along roadsides, especially on limestone soil at the foot of 
the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is soft, but 
durable and valuable. It repi'oduces freely, but the rate of growth is 
slow. 

Butternut {Juglans cinerea) is a short-stemmed tree reaching a 
height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It is frequent on rocky 
soil along streams between 1,500 and 4:,000 feet elevation. It yields a 
valuable light-brown cabinet wood. Seed is borne at frequent and 
regular intervals, and reproduction is good. 

Black' Walnut {Juglans nigra) reaches a height of 110 feet and a 
diameter of -10 inches, attaining its greatest size in the deep hollows of 
the mountains of North Carolina, where it occurs mixed with oaks 
and chestnut. The larger and most valuable trees have generally 
been removed. It seeds regularly and reproduces freeh'. The black, 
fine-grained wood takes a good polish, and is largely used in Europe 
for furniture. 

Bltternut {Hicoria minima) is one of the largest and most valuable 
of the hickories, often attaining a height of 110 feet and a diameter 
of 30 inches. It is frequent on lower moist slopes and along streams. 
Seed is boi-ne in abundance at frequent intervals, and reproduction is 
good. The rate of g'rowth is raj^id. The wood is hard, heav}', and 
tough, and is much used for the handles of tools and in wagon manu- 
facture. 

ShagharJc. {Hicoria ovata) is frequent along streams and on moist, 
rich slopes, where it attains a large size. It reproduces freel3' by 
seed, and small trees sprout from the stump. The tough, elastic wood 
is regarded as being second in qualitj' among all the hickories. The 
large, edible nuts are extensively gathered and sold. 

Carolina Shaghark {Hicoria carolinm-septentrionalis) is a smaller 
tree than the preceding, but its wood is of the same quality, and is 
used for the same purposes. It occurs on .sand}- soil at the south- 
western end of the Appalachians, below 1,200 feet elevation. 

Shellhark Hickory {Hicoria laciniosa) is a large and valuable tree 
which is found at only a very few places. It grows on alluvial lands 
at a low elevation. 

White Hickory {Hicoria cdba) is the most common hickory. It is 
frequent on rich, warm soil at a low elevation, where it becomes a 
large tree, sometimes 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. The 
hard, tough wood is preferred to that of the other species for mechanical 
uses. It seeds and reproduces freel}', and young trees are common in 



96 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAX REGION. 

culled woods at low altitudes. This and the other species are largely 
used for fuel. 

Red-heart Hickory {Hicoria odoratd) becomes 120 feet in height and 
30 inches in diameter, and is one of the most common species. In the 
Southern Appalachians it is second in value and importance onl}^ to the 
White Hickory. It prefers rich, warm soil at low elevations. Seed 
are borne often and in abundance, and reproduction is good. 

Pignut {Hicoria glahra) is a slender tree, exceptionally 100 feet in 
height, generally growing on dry soil, but is not common. The timber 
is inferior to that of the red-heart hickory. 

Hainj Pignut {Hicoria glahra hirsufa) is like the preceding in size 
and in the character of its timber, but is not so common. 

Sand Hicliory {Hicoria viUom) is a small, uncommon tree, yielding a 
wood similar to that of the pignut. It grows on sandj- soil along 
streams and on dry ridges at low elevations. 

Black Willcnv {Salix nigra) is a small tree reaching a height of 50 
feet, and is common along streams below 3,000 feet elevation. The 
wood is not used, but the tree is important, as its tough roots serve to 
protect from erosion the banks of the streams along which the trees 
grow. 

Sill-y Willmr {Salix sericea) is a small tree 20 to 30 feet in height, 
with straight stems, which is common along streams and in wet mead- 
ows below -±,000 feet in altitude. It is too small to furnish useful 
wood, but as a protection against the erosion of the banks of small 
streams it is of more importance than the preceding. It seeds abun- 
dantlj' and reproduces f reeh'. 

Zargetooth Aspen {Populus grandidentata) is a slender tree reaching 
a height of 50 feet. It is not common and the wood is not used. 

Balm of Gilead {Pojjidus laUamifera candicans) has been exten- 
sively planted along streams, where it makes an excellent soil binder 
and protects the banks against washing. It is also useful in building 
up low areas along streams which are subject to flooding, as the 
deposit of earth around its stems during freshets does not injure the 
health of the tree. The collection and sale of the large resinous buds, 
which are used medicinalh", is an industry of some importance. It is 
a tree of rapid growth, and soon reaches a height of 50 feet. • The 
wood is light, soft, and not durable. 

Biver Birch {Betula nigra) reaches a height of 70 feet and a diame- 
ter of 30 inches, and occurs only along the banks of the larger streams. 
Seeds are borne abundantly and reproduction is good. The wood is 
coarse and hard. It is chiefly valuable in protecting the banks of 
streams. 

Svxet Birch {Betula lenta) is found along cold mountain streams on 
northern slopes, where it reaches a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 
3 feet. The timber is used to some extent in the manufacture of fur- 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 97 

niture. Birch oil is obtained by distillation from the bark. It seeds 
often and reproduces freel}-. 

Yelloiv Birch {Betula luted) reaches a height of 80 feet and a diame- 
ter of 36 inches, and is common in cold ravines and on northern 
slopes, especiallj' at high- elevations. Many of the trees are curlj^ and 
yield a valuable cabinet wood. It seeds freely and reproduces well on 
moist land among laurel brush. 

IIoj) Hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana) reaches a height of 40 feet and a 
diameter of 12 inches, and is common along streams. The wood is very 
hard and firm. 

IronvMod {Carpin%i,s caroUniana) is a small tree, seldom more than 
30 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter. It occurs sparingly on 
moist-soiled, shady slopes. The wood is verj' hard and tough. 

Beech {Fagus americana) reaches a height of 100 feet and a diam- 
eter of 30 inches. It is common on moist lands along streams and in 
hollows, where it attains its greatest size, and on cold slopes at high 
elevations, where it forms dense groves of small trees. It seeds fre- 
quently and reproduces freely. The wood is hard, tough, and fine 
grained. 

Chestnut (Castanea dentata) is a large tree, which attains a height of 
120 feet and a diameter 7 feet. It is common on nearly all soils above 
2,000 feet elevation, but decreases in abundance below that, reaching 
its greatest development in deep hollows at about 3,000 feet eleva- 
tion. The wood is rather soft, but valuable and durable, is exten- 
sivelj^ used locally for building and fencing, and is largely sawn for 
shipment. The collection of the nuts forms an important industry. 
It regenerates well from stool shoots and from seeds, which are borne 
regularlj' and in abundance. The rate of growth is very rapid, being 
greater than that of any other hard wood of the region. 

ChinqvMpin {Castanea pumila) is a small tree, seldom more than 40 
feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is frequent on dry soil 
below 3,000 feet deviation. The wood is similar to that of the chestnut. 

White Oak {Qxiercxis alba), reaching a height of 120 feet and a diam- 
eter of 5 feet, is common below 4, 500 feet elevation, especially on rocky 
soil. The timber is regarded as superior to that of the other oaks and 
is largely used in the manufacture of farm implements and wagons, 
for furniture, and for interior finish. The bark is rich in tannin. Seed 
is borne abundantly and often, and reproduction is good. The rate 
of growth is rapid, though not so rapid as that of the red oaks. 

PcM Oak (Quet'cus m.inw) is a small tree, seldom more than 60 feet 
in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is especially valued for wagon 
hubs. It occurs only on dry soils, generally associated with the yellow 
pine and black oak, and is uncommon except at low elevations, especially 
toward the southwestern end of the mountams. It seeds freely and 
reproduces well. The rate of growth is fair. 

*S. Doc. 84 7 



98 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 

Swavvp White Oak {Quercus 2}l('-tanoides) becomes a large tree, 100 
feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. It is found along streams, but is 
infrequent. The wood has the same qualities and uses as that of the 
white oak, though it is coarser and more brittle. 

Chestnut OaJc {Queixus prinus)^ reaching a height of 90 feet and a 
diameter of -10 inches, is common on dr}' and especiallj^ sandy slopes. 
The wood is harder and more durable than that of the other oaks of 
this region and is largelj^ used for posts, railwaj'^ ties, and insulator 
pins. The bark, which is rich in tannin, is extensively used in the 
manufacture of white leathers, thousands of trees being j^earl}- stripped 
to supplj' the demand. It seeds frequently and in abundance, and 
reproduces freely. The rate of growth is slow, the large trees often 
being 250 years old. 

Yellow Oak {Quercus acmninatd), reaching a height of 90 feet and a 
diameter of 24 inches, occurs rarely along the largei' streams. The 
wood has much the same quality' and uses as that of the white oak. 

Red Oak {Quercim ritira) is the largest oak in the Southern Appa- 
lachians, frequent^ reaching a height of 130 feet and a diameter of 
more than 5 feet. It is common above 1,500 feet, but attains its 
greatest size in deep, cool hollows, on fertile soil, where it grows with 
chestnut, linn, birch, and j^ellow poplar. It is extensiveh' sawn, and 
the wood is largely' used in the manufacture of furniture, for interior 
finish, staves, and in construction. It is a tree of rapid growth, seeds 
frequently and freely, and reproduces well. 

Pin Oal- {Quercm palustris) is a small tree, seldom more than 50 
feet in height and 20 inches in diameter. It is found only at a low 
elevation, along streams flowing from the western slope of the Smoky 
Mountains. The wood is coarse and porous, and even were the tree 
more common would be little used. 

Spotted Oak {Quercus texana) is a tall, slender tree, often 110 feet 
high and 30 inches in diaixieter, growing in the larger valleys below 
1,200 feet elevation. It is not common, but reproduces well and 
makes rapid growth. 

Scarlet Oak {Qiiei'cus coccinea), reaching a height of 100 feet and a 
diameter of 30 inches, but generallj^ much smaller, is very common on 
dry soil, especially if stifl', below -1,000 feet elevation. The timber is 
not so valuable as that of the red oak, but is much used. It repro- 
duces freely and makes good growth. 

Black Oak {Quercus velutina), reaching a height of 100 feet and a 
diametei- of 30 inches, is frequent on good soil on well-drained slopes 
below 2,500 feet elevation. The timber has about the same uses as 
that of the red oak. It is a tree of rapid growth and reproduces 
well. The bark is rich in tannin. 

Southern Red Oak {Quercus digltata), reaching in the mountains a 
height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, is common only below 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 99 

2,000 feet elevation, where it occurs on dry soils generally with the 
shortleaf pine. It is a tree of rapid growth and seeds abundantly 
every few years. The bark is rich in tannin. 

Bear Oak (Quercics pum'da) is generally a large shrub, sometimes 
becoming a small tree. It is unimportant as a timber tree, and not at 
all common except northeastward. 

Black Jack {Quercus marilandica) is a small tree, seldom more than 
30 feet in height. It is found only on poor, dry soil below 2,000 feet 
elevation, and is infrequent except on the southern slope of the Blue 
Eidge. The wood makes an excellent fuel, but is valueless as timber. 

Water Oak {Quei'cus nigra) is a small tree, reaching a height of 50 
feet and a diameter seldom greater than 20 inches. It is found occa- 
sionally along the larger streams around the southern base of the 
mountains. It is not sufficiently abundant to have any specific use in 
this region. The wood is similar to that of the shingle oak. described 
below. 

Shingle Oak {Quercus imhricarla) is a small tree, seldom more tnan 
60 feet in height, which occurs in the valleys below 2,500 feet elevation. 
The wood is used for no specific purpose, but is coarse-grained and 
porous like that of the black and scarlet oaks, and is adapted to similar 
uses. It seeds freely, reproduces well, and makes rapid growth. 

White Elm (Ulonus americana), reaching a height of 80 feet and a 
diameter of .30 inches, occurs only along the larger streams. It is not 
abundant enough to be generally used. The wood is hard and tough. 

Winged Elm {Ulnvus alata) occurs ou\j along the larger streams, 
especially toward the southern end of the Appalachians. It is seldom 
more than 60 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, and is unimport- 
ant as a timber tree. The wood is hard and tough. 

Slippery Elm ( TJlmus pubescens), reaching a height of more than 
100 feet and a diameter of more than 30 inches, is occasionally found 
in rich hollows. It is too infrequent to have any commercial uses. 

Late Elm ( Ulmus setxttina) is a small tree occurring on the larger 
streams at the southern end of the Appalachian Plateau. Its timber 
is similar to that of the other species, but is not used. 

IIacM>erry ( Celtis occidentalis) is a slender tree, sometimes 90 feet 
feet high and 24 inches in diameter, which occurs along the larger 
streams. The wood is tough and strong, but is not used. It seeds 
f reelj' and reproduces well. 

Mississippi Hackherry {Celtis mississippiensis) is a tree similar in 
size and in the character of its wood to the preceding. It occurs along 
the larger streams, but is not common. 

Bough Hackherry { Celtis crassifolici) is a smaller tree than the above, 
seldom more than 30 feet in height and 12 inches in diameter. The 
wood is tough and strong, but is not used. 



100 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

.Midhei'ry {Moms riihrd) is a small tree with a ver^' short stem, sel- 
dom more than 25 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. The wood 
is tough and ver3^ durable, and is used for posts, etc. It is found in 
rich hollows at low elevations, but is in general cultivation for the 
fruit. It seeds regularly and abundantly, and makes rapid growth. 

Cucumier-tree {Magnolia acuminata) is a large tree, becoming 120 
feet high and 5 feet in diameter. It frequents the base of the moun- 
tains, generally above 1,500 feet altitude. The wood is rather soft 
and yellow, and is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, being 
marketed with that of the yellow poplar. Seed are not abundant and 
reproduction is scant}'. The rate of growth is slow. 

Yellow-flowered Cucumher-tree {Magnolia acuminata cordata) is a 
smaller tree than the preceding and is confined to the lower elevations 
at the southern end of the Appalachians. As a timber tree it is 
unimportant. 

Largeleaf Umhrella-tree {Magnolia macrophylla) is a small tree, 
seldom more than 25 feet in height, which occurs at only a few places 
along streams or on shad}' slopes. It is often planted as an orna- 
mental tree, but the wood has no uses. 

Umhrella-tree {Magnolia tripetala) is a small tree very similar to the 
preceding, but more common. 

Mountain Magnolia {Magnolia fraseri) is a tree 40 to 60 feet in 
height, growing along cool sti'eams. The wood is soft and white, and 
is put to no uses. The bark is gathered and used medicinally. 

Yellow Poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera) is the largest tree of the 
Appalachians, attaining a height of 110 feet and a diameter of 8 feet. 
It is common below 3,500 feet elevation, but is most abundant and 
reaches its largest size in cool, sheltered hollows on rich soil. The 
wood is soft and yellow, and is extensively used in the manufacture of 
furniture and for wood pulp. It seeds frequentl}' and abundantly, 
but young trees are not very common, as a delicate adjustment of 
light and moisture condition is required for regeneration. It repro- 
duces freely on the partlj^ shaded portions of old pastures. It is a 
tree of only medium rapiditj^ of growth. 

Papaio {Asimina triloha) is a small tree, seldom more ihan 30 feet in 
height, growing on rich, moist soil at low elevations. It is uncommon. 

Sassafras {Sassafras sassafras), reaching a height of not more than 
40 feet and a diameter of 24 inches, is common on dr}', sandj' soil. 
The red wood is hard and fine grained, and takes a beautiful polish. 
It is sometimes used in the manufacture of furniture. It reproduces 
freely in old fields on stiif soil by seed and suckers. 

Witch Hazel {Hamamelis virginianci) is a small tree, about 15 feet in 
height, or generallj' a slender shrub, common on moist soils up to 4,000 
feet elevation. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. Extract 
of witch hazel is distilled from its bark. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 101 

Sweet Gtim {Liquidamhar styraciflua) is found in this area only along 
the larger streams at a low elevation. It becomes a tree 110 feet in 
height and 3 feet in diameter. The wood is red, hard, and fine grained, 
and is used for ci-ates, shipping boxes, tobacco boxes, etc., and for 
flooring and furniture. It seeds regularly, and seedlings are not uncom- 
mon near old tx"ees. | 

Sycamore {Platanus Occident alis) is a large tree, often 110 feet in 
height and 3 feet in diameter, common along the larger streams. The 
wood is hard and firm, with a beautiful grain, and is used for tobacco 
boxes, and to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. It seeds 
often and reproduces freely. 

Grab Apple {Pyrus coronaria) is a small tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, 
common in old fields and open woods. The wood is hard and tough, 
and is used to some extent in turnery. It seeds abundant^ and repro- 
duces freely. 

Narroideaf Crah Apple {Pyrus angustifolia) occurs with the preced- 
ing and is verj^ similar to it in its wood. 

Mountain Ash {Sorbus americand) is a small tree, seldom more than 
30 feet in height, which is found around the summits of the higher 
mountains. The timber is not used. 

Service-tree {Amelanchier canadensis) is a small ti'ee, seldom more 
than 15 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, which is common 
above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard and fine grained, and is 
sometimes used in turnery. It seeds abundantly, aad young trees are 
common. 

Small-flowered Service {ATnelanchier hotryapium) is a tree with the 
same distribution and uses as the preceding. 

CocJcspur Thorn {Crataegiis cnis-gcdli) is a small tree, seldom more 
than 25 feet in height, frequent along roadsides and in fields. The 
wood is not used. 

Blue Ridge Thorn ( C'ratcegtos -mtdtispina), becoming 25 feet in height 
and 10 inches in diameter, is frequent in fields and on roadsides along 
the Blue Ridge. It is unimportant as a timber tree. 

BlacJc Thorn ( Cratcegtis tomentosa) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in 
height, which occurs along streams. It is unimportant as a tim ^er 
tree. 

Chajjman, Thorn ( CWitcegus chapviani) is very similar to the preced ■ 
ing in size and distribution. 

I^ew River Thorn ( Oratmgus neo-flv/oialis) occurs along streams in 
the northern part of the plateau. It is not common and is unimportant 
as a forest tree. 

Washington Thorn ( Cratcegus cordata) is very frequent on dry soU 
at low elevations. Unassuming in size, it is a most beautiful orna- 
mental tree. 



102 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

S2Mtulate Thorn ( Cratcegxcs yxithidafa) is frequent at low elevations 
around the base of the plateau on dr}' soil. 

Pai'sley Thorn ( Cratwgus apifolia) is an infrequent tree, about 20 
feet in height, occurring on dry soil around the base of the plateau. 

Tree Thorn {Cratmgus viridis), becoming 35 feet in height and 15 
inches in diameter, occurs along the larger streams below 1.500 feet 
elevation. 

Dotted Th-wn {Cratmgus punctata) is common along cold streams and 
around the summits of the high mountains. 

Golden Thorn ( Crataegus crocata) is verjr much like the preceding, 
and has the same distribution. 

Hill Thorn ( Oratrngus collina), becoming 25 feet high and 12 inches in 
diameter, is frequent in fields and in open, dry woods to the south of 
Asheville. 

Buckley Th/yrn {Cratoegus huckleyi)h a slender tree, sometimes 30 
feet in height, which occurs along streams at low elevations, especially 
in the vallej- of the French Broad River. 

Catawba Thorn ( Cratcegus catawbien^is) is a small, bush}' tree occur- 
ring along streams on the east slope of the Blue Ridge. 

Pruinose Thorn [Cratcegus lyrulnosa) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet 
in height, with a short trunk. It occui's on dry hills, especialty along 
the Blue Ridge. 

Boynton Thorn {Cratcegus hoyntoni) is seldom 20 feet in height. It 
is common on dry hills, especially in the French Broad Valley. 

Wild, Phmi {Prunus ccmericana) is a small tree which is common in 
open woods and fields below 4,000 feet elevation. Its edible fruit is 
borne' often and in abundance. The wood has no uses. It is the parent 
stock of man}' of the cultivated plums. 

Chickascttv Plum {Prunus angustlfolici) is a small tree much like the 
above, and also the parent of man\' cultivated varieties. 

Fire Cherry {Prun us pennsylvanica) becomes 40 feet in height and 
more than 12 inches in diameter. It occurs in cold, damp woods around 
the high mountains, and often forms extensive groves of pure growth 
on burned spruce lands, where it prepares the soil for another growth 
of spruce. The wood is soft and brittle. Seeds are borne abundantlv 
and fi-equentiy. The growth is rapid. 

Wild Cherry {Prunus serotina) along streams at a low elevation is a 
small tree, but on moist land at high elevations becomes a tree 100 
feet or more in height and 3 feet in diameter. The red wood is hard 
and takes a fine polish and is extensively used for interior finish, and 
was used for furniture until it became too rare. The rate of growth is 
rather slow. It seeds often, but young growth at high elevations is 
uncommon. The best trees have generally been removed. 

Redbud {Ceixis canadensis) is a small tree about 15 feet in height. 
It occurs along the edges of woods or on rocky banks of streams, 
seldom above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is not used. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 103 

Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a tree reaching a height of 
60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It was introduced into this 
region from middle Tennessee, but is thoroughl}^ naturalized and 
propagates freely in old fields and waste places. The wood is not used, 
though it is tough, stroiig, and durable. 

Coffee Tree ( Gymnocladus diocus) is a small tree, seldom more than 40 
feet in height. It occurs in fertile valleys at the foot of the western 
slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is not much used. It repro- 
duces well. 

Yellow-wood {Gladrastis lutea) is seldom more than 30 feet in height 
and a foot in diameter. It occurs in rich hollows at a low elevation at 
the southwestern end of the Appalachians. The hard, yellow wood 
takes a fine polish. 

Locust {Rohinia pseudacacia) is a slender tree sometimes 100 feet 
in height and 30 inches in diameter. It is frequent below 4,000 feet 
elevation on rather dry, yet shaded and deep soil. It seeds abundantly 
and reproduces freel}^ bv sprouts, suckers, and seeds. The hard, yel 
low wood is very durable in contact with the soil or on exposure, and 
is extensivelj^ used for fence posts, sills, bridge timber, and insulator 
and ship pins. A most valuable tree, but it is often attacked by a 
fungus which destroys the heartwood. 

Clammy Locust {Rohinia viscosa) is a small tree, 20 to 30 feet in 
height, with a short stem, or generally a large shrub found wild in this 
area only in its southeastern part. It is highW prized as an orna- 
mental plant on account of the beauty of its flowers, and is extensively 
cultivated. Its wood has no uses. It seeds frequently and reproduces 
freely both by seed and suckers. 

Prickly Ash {Xanthoxylum clava-herculis), becoming 25 feet in height 
and 1 foot in diameter, is frequent along streams. The wood is not 
used. An extract from the bark is used medicinally. It seeds abun- 
dantly and reproduces freely. 

Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa) is an introduced Asiatic tree which 
reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 10 feet. It is extensively 
naturalized along some of the streams, where it propagates freely by 
means of suckers, and forms dense thickets. The wood is hard, dura- 
ble, and valuable, but is not used. The growth is rapid. 

Staghorn Sumach {Rhus hirta) is a small tree, seldom 30 feet in 
height, growing along streams or in waste places, especially at high 
elevations. The bark 3delds a superior tannin for kids, but is not used 
locally. 

Holly {Ilex opaca) is a small evergreen tree, rarely more than 50 
feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, which grows chiefly in sandy 
flats along streams below 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, 
white, and fine grained, and is used to some extent in cabinetmaking. 
It seeds often and abundantly, and reproduces well. It is much prized 
as an ornamental tree. 



104 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN- REGION. 

Deciduous Holly {Flex decidiia) is a small tree, seldom 25 feet in 
height, with a short trunk and large, spreading crown, growing along 
streams below 1,500 feet elev'ation. The wood is hard and tough, but 
is not used. 

Mountain Holly [Ilex monticola)^ becoming 25 feet in height and 10 
inches in diameter, is common on cold slopes at high elevations. The 
wood is not used. 

Mountain Majyle {Ace?' spicatum) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in 
height, often with several stems from the same root, which grows in 
cold, wet soil at high altitudes. It has no uses. 

Striped Maple {Acer pennsylvanicuin), becoming 50 feet in height 
and 14 inches in diameter, is found frequently along cold streams 
above 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is put to no use. 

8uga/r Maple {Acer saccha/rum), reaching a height of 120 feet and a 
diameter of 40 inches, is common north of the Cowee Mountains, 
above 2,000 feet elevation, on cold, moist soil. The hard, fine-grained 
wood is sawn for iiooring; the figured wood for furniture stock. A 
small quantity of maple sugar is made from the sap. Seed is borne 
frequently and abundantly, and young trees are common in damp 
woods. The rate of growth is slow. 

Black Maple {Acer nigrum) is a tree similar in size to the preced- 
ing, but much less common, being largelj^ confined to the western 
slope of the Smokj^ Mountains. 

Bed Maple {Acer ruirum), becoming 110 feet in height and 36 
inches in diameter, is common on moist soil, and the young growth 
in culled woods. The wood is softer than that of the preceding, and 
inferior to it. It seeds freely and reproduces well. The rate of 
growth is slow. 

Biver Maple {Acer ruhrwm drummondii) is a smaller tree than the 
preceding, seldom more than 80 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, 
which is common along the banks of the larger streams. The wood 
is soft and white, and is not used. It seeds freely and }^oung trees 
are common. 

Box Elder {Acer negundo), becoming 40 feet in height and 1 foot in 
diameter, is frequent along the large streams at a low elevation. The 
wood is not used. 

Buckeye {^scidus octandra) becomes a tree 120 feet in height and 
4 feet in diameter. It is common in cold hollows, especially above 
3,000 feet elevation. The wood is light and soft, but is not generally 
used. It reproduces freelj^. The rate of growth is good. 

Purple Buclteye {JEsculus octandra hybrida) is a smaller and less 
common tree than the preceding, and is confined to the western slope 
of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is similar to that of the preceding. 

Buckthorn {Bhanius caroliniand) is a small tree, seldom more than 
25 feet in height, found on open slopes near the larger streams. The 
wood is not used. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 105 

Linn {Tilia heterophylla), becoming a tree 120 feet in height and 4 
feet in diameter, is common along streams and in cool hollows. The 
wood is white, light, and soft, and is extensively sawn for lumber. It 
seeds freely, but seedlings are not common. It sprouts freely from 
the stump. 

Blue Ridge Linn {Tilia ehurnea) is a tree similar to the preceding in 
size and quality of wood. It is confined to the Blue Ridge Mountains, 
or the region near them. 

Basstvood {Tilia americana), reaching a height of more than 100 
feet and a diameter of 3 feet, is confined to streams at the base of the 
western slope of the Smoky Mountains, but is by no means common. 
The wood is used with that of the linn without distinction. 

Dogwood {Cornus florida) is a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height 
and 1 foot in diameter, common beneath the shade of other trees on 
fertile soil below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, heavj', and 
strong, and is used for shuttle blocks and a variety of mechanical 
purposes. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freel3^ The rate of 
growth is slow. 

Blue Cornel {Cornus alternifolia), a slender tree 25 feet in height, 
is common along cold mountain streams. 

Swamj) Cornel {Cornus sericea), a bushy tree 20 feet in height, is 
common along the larger streams. 

Black Gum {Nyssa sylvatica) is a tree sometimes 110 feet in height 
and 3 feet in diameter, but generally much smaller, which is common 
along streams at low elevations and on dry slopes at high elevations. 
The wood is hard and tough, but not durable, and is little used except 
as rails for tramways in logging. It seeds abundantly and reproduces 
freely. The rate of growth is good. 

Sourioood {Oxydendrum arioreum), a tree 80 feet in height and 18 
inches in diameter, is common on dry soil below 4,000 feet elevation. 
The red wood is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish. It is 
used to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. The seed are 
borne in abundance and reproduction is prolific. The rate of growth 
is fair. 

Persimmon {Biospyros virginianui), a tree 40 feet in height and 18 
inches in diameter, is found in fields and waste places. The hard, 
tough wood is used for shuttle blocks, shoe lasts, insulator pins, etc. 
It seeds freely and reproduces well, especially on old fields. 

Sweetleaf {Symplocos tinctoria) is a small tree, seldom more than 20 
feet in height, which grows on dry soil. The bark yields a yellow dye. 

Peawood or Bell-tree {Mohrodendron caroUn-um) is common along 
streams, where it is a small tree, seldom 70 feet in height, but becom- 
ing in the rich, damp hollows of the Black and Smoky mountains a 
tree 100 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. The reddish wood 
is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish, and on the western 



106 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAKT REGION. 

slopes of the Smoky Mountains is sawn and sold as cherry. It seeds 
frequently and freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is 
fair. 

Black Ash [Fraxintis nigra), a small tree not more than 30 feet in 
height and 1 foot in diameter, grows in cold mountain swamps. It 
is found only in a few places, and is unimportant as a timber tree. 

White Ash {Fraxinus americana), becoming 130 feet in height and 
40 inches in diameter, is one of the most common and important trees. 
The light brown, elastic wood is largely used in furniture, for handles 
of agricultural implements, etc. It seeds freely and reproduces well 
if proper soil and light conditions are affoi'ded. The growth is good. 

Red Ash {Fraxinus pennsylvanica) is a slender tree, seldom more 
than 110 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, which is frequent along 
the banks of the larger streams. The wood is similar to that of the 
White Ash, and is put to the same uses. 

Green Ash {Fraxinus lanceolata) is a tree with the same size and 
distribution as the above, but more common. 

Biltmore Ash {Fraxinus hiltvioi'eana) is a tree 20 feet in height and 
2 feet in diameter, growing on the larger streams of the plateau. It 
is not common. 

Catawba Ash {Fraxinus catawbiensis) is a slender tree, 110 feet in 
height and 30 inches in diameter. It occurs only on the banks of the 
larger streams at the foot of the Blue Ridge. Its growth is rapid and 
it reproduces freely. 

Fringetree {Chionanthus virginica), becoming 25 feet in height and 
8 inches in diameter, is common along streams at lower elevations. 

Oatalpa {Catalpa eatalpa) \s a.n introduced tree which has become 
naturalized along some of the larger streams. It becomes 40 feet in 
height and 2 feet in diameter, and is a tree of rapid growth. The 
wood is durable and makes excellent posts. 

Black Saw ( Viburnum prunifoMum) is a small tree, 15 feet in 
height, frequent in fields and along small streams at low elevations. 
An extract from the bark is used medicinally. 



LIST OF SHRUBS AND SOME PLANTS WHICH ONLY UNDER 
THE MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS ASSUME ARBORESCENT 
FORM. 



By W. W. Ashe. 



Cane ( Arundinaria tecta). 
Wild Sarsaparilla (Smilax glauca). 
Greenbiier (Smilax rotundifolia). 
Hispid Greenbrier (Smilax hispida). 
Bristly Greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox). 
Juniper (Juniperus communis). 
Dwarf AVillow (Salix humilis). 
Gray Willow (Salix tristis). 
Hazel (Corylus americana). 
Beaked Hazel (Corylus rostrata). 
Mountain Alder (Alnus alnobetula). 
Common Alder (Alnus rugosa). 
Dwarf Oak (Quercus prinoides). 
Mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens). 
Sweet Fern (Comptonia peregrina). 
Oil Nut (Pyrularia pubera). 
Buckle3'a (Buckleya distichophylla). 
Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia macro- 

phylla). 
Barberry (Berberis canadensis). 
Moonseed ( Menispermum canadense) . 
Sweet Shrub (Butnera fertilis). 
Spicewood (Benzoin benzoin). 
Mountain Hydrangea (Hydrangea arbo- 

rescens). 
Showy Hydrangea (Hydrangea radiata). 
Syringa (Philadelphus inodorus). 
Itea (Itea virginica). 
Hop Trefoil (Ptelea trifoliata). 
False Indigo (Amorpha virgata). 
False Indigo (Amorpha fruticosa). 
Rose Locust (Kobinia hispida). • 
Boynton Locust (Robinia boyntoni). 
Wistaria (Wistaria frutescens). 
Red Root (Ceanothus americana). 
Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca). 
Summer Grape (Vitis aestivalis). 
Le Conte Grape (Vitis bicolor). 
Riverside Grape (Vitis vulpina). 



Frost Grape (Vitis cordifolia). 
Bailey Grape (Vitis baileyaua). 
Muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia). 
Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quin- 

quefolia). 
Sumach (Rhus copallina). 
Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra). 
Poison Sumach (Rhus vernix). 
Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans). 
Poison Oak (Rhus toxicodendron). 
Beadle Winterberry (Ilex beadlei). 
Winterberry (Ilex verticillata). 
Southern Winterberry (Ilex longipes). 
Strawberry Bush (Euonymus ameri- 

canus). 
Burning Bush (Euonymus atropurpu- 

reus) . 
Wax Work (Celastrus scandens). 
Bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia). 
Gooseberry ( Ribes cynosbati) . 
Mountain Gooseberry (Ribes rotundi- 
folia). 
Slender Gooseberry (Ribes gracile). 
Mountain Currant (Ribes prostratum). 
Fothergilla (Fothergilla monticola). 
Ninebarks (Opulaster opulifolius). 
Meadow-sweet (Spiraea salicifolia). 
Hardback (Spiraea tomentosa). 
Mountain Spirsea (Spirrea corymbosa). 
Virginia Spirtea (Spiraea virginiana). 
Flowering Raspberry (Rubus odoratus). 
Red Raspberry (Rubus strigosus). 
Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis). 
Mountain Blackberry (Rubus alleghani- 

ensis). 
Northern Blackberry (Rubus nigrobac- 

cus). 
Low-bush Blackberry (Rubus cuneifo- 

lius). 

107 



108 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



Thornless Blackberry (Rubus canaden- 
sis). 
Hispid Bramble (Rubus hispidus). 
Boj'nton Bramble (Rubus boyntoni). 
Great Bramble (Rubus clava-herculis). 
Watauga Bramble (Rubus wataugje). 
Appalachian Blackberry (Rubus argutoi- 

des). 
Common Blackberry (Rubus argutus). 
Wild Rose (Rosa Carolina). 
Dwarf Rose (Rosa humilis). 
Red Choke-berry (Aronia arbutif olia) . 
Black Choke-berry (Aronia nigra). 
Dreaded Thorn (Cratsegus crux). 
White-anthered Thorn (Cratsegus ebur- 

nea). 
Edible Thorn (Crataegus cibilis). 
Thick Thorn (Cratsegus densa). 
Prolific Thorn (Cratsegus farcta) . 
Discoid Thorn (Crataegus discoidea). 
Light-green Thorn (CratEegus chlorina). 
Pendent Thorn (Cratsegus pendulina). 
Particolored Thorn (Crataegus bicolor). 
Fleshy Thorn (Cratsegus carnosa). 
Three-angled Thorn (Cratsegus prismat- 

ica). 
Bloody Thorn (Cratsegus cruenta). 
Three-seeded Thorn (Cratsegus tris- 

perma). 
Curtis Thorn (Cratsegus curtisi). 
Bractless Thorn (Crataegus elracteata). 
Brown Thorn ( Cratsegus addisoni) . 
Roan Thorn (Cratsegus roanensis). 
Thin-leaved Thorn ( Cratsegus tenuif olia). 
Biltmore Thorn (Cratsegus biltmoreana). 
Small-flowered Thorn (Cratsegus uni- 

flora). 
Vail Thorn (Cratsegus vailiae). 
Lookout-mountain Thorn (Cratsegus ma- 

crosperma). 
Oconaluftee Thorn (Cratsegus roribacca). 
Wrinkled Thorn (Crataegus rugosa). 
Yellow-flesh Thorn (Cratsegus flavo-car- 

nis). 
Rosy Thorn (Cratsegus rubella). 
Red-flesh Thorn (Cratsegus hsemacarpa). 
Cullasagee Thorn (Crataegus callasa- 

gensis). 
Forest Thorn (Cratsegus silvicala). 
Thorn (Cratsegus sororia). 
Dwarf Cherry (Prunus cuneata). 
Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana). 
Mountain Stuartia (Stuartia pentagyna). 



St. Andrew's Cross (Ascycrum hyperi- 

coides). 
Shrubby St. John's- wort (Hypericum 

prolificum). 
Bushy St. John's-wort (Hypericum densi- 

florum ) . 
Doubtful St. John's-wort (Hypericum 

ambiguum) . 
Riverside St. John's-wort (Hypericum 

nudiflorum). 
Buckley St. John's-wort (Hypericum 

buckleyi). 
Table-rock Hudsonia (Hudsonia mon- 

tana). 
Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) . 
Spikenard (Aralia spinosa). 
Pepperbush (Clethra acuminata). 
Early Azalea (Azalea nudiflora). 
Down)' Azalea (Azalea canescens). 
Yellow Azalea (Azalea lutea). 
Fragrant Azalea ( Azalea arborescens ) . 
White Azalea (Azalea viscosa) 
Vasey Azalea (Azalea vaseyi). 
Winterberry (Gaultheria procumbens). 
Mountain Laurel (Rhododendron maxi- 
mum). 
Purple Laurel (Rhododendron cataw- 

biense). 
Small Laurel (Rhododendron puncta- 

tum) . 
Menziesia (Menziesia pilosa). 
Leather-leaf (Chamsedaphne calyculata). 
Mountaini\Iyrtle (Dendrium prostratum). 
Blue-ridge Myrtle (Dendrium hugeri). 
Sheep Wicky (Kalmia angustifolia). 
Kalmia (Kalmia latif olia). 
Dog Hobble (Leucothoe catesbsei). 
Common Leucothoe (Leucothoe race- 

mosa). 
Buckley Leucothoe (Leucothoe recurva). 
Fetter-bush (Pieris floribunda). 
Stagger-bush (Xolisma ligustrina). 
Tangle-berry (Gaylussaccia frondosa). 
Northern High-bush Huckleberry (Gay- 
lussaccia resinosa). 
Dwarf Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia du- 

mosa). 
Buckberry (Gaylussaccia ursina). 
Box Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia hrachy- 

cera). 
High-bush Huckleberry (Vaccinium vir- 

gatum). 



80UTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



109 



Common Blueberry (Vaccinium corym- 
bosum). 

Mountain Huckleberry (Vaccinium pal- 
lidum). 

Dwarf Blueberry (Vaccinium vaccilans). 

Black Huckleberry (Vaccinium atro- 
coccum). 

Pale Deerberry (Vaccinium glaucumj. 

Deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum). 

Sparkleberry ( Vaccinium arboreum ) . 

Hairy Huckleberry (Vaccinium hir- 
sutum ) . 

Cranberry (Oxy coccus macrocarpus). 

Bearberry (Oxycoccua erythrocarpus). 

Styrax (Styrax americana). 



Common Elder (Sambucus canadensis). 
Eed-berried Elder (Sambucus pubens). 
Pubescent Arrow-wood (Vilurimm alni- 

folium). 
Arrow- wood (Viburnum acerifolium). 
Swamp Arrow-wood (Viburnum molle) . 
Hobble-bush (Viburnum lentago). 
Swamp Haw (Viburnum cassinoides). 
Swamp Haw (Viburnum nudum). 
Black Haw (Viburnum rufomentosum). 
Coral-berry (Sympboricarpos symphori- 

carpos) . 
Yellow Honeysuckle (Lonicera flava). 
Mountai n Hone}'Suckle (Lonicera glauca ) . 
Woodbine (Lonicera sempervirens). 



LETFER OF TRANSMITl^AL. 



Department of the Inteeiok, 

Washington, Decetriber 13, 1901. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a letter from the Director 
of the Geological Survey, submitting brief reports on the topogra- 
phy and geology of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, by Ai'thur 
Keith, and on the hydrography' of the same region, by H. A. Pressey 
and E. W. Myers, of the Geological Survey, for use in connection 
with 3'our report on the forest conditions of the region. 
Very respectfully, 

E. A. Hitchcock, 

Secretary. 
The Secretary of Agriculture. 



LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 



Department of the Interior, 
United States Geological Survey, 

Washington, D. C, December 12, 1901. 

Sir: I send herewith for submittal to the Secretary of Agriculture, 
short reports on the topography and geology of the Southern Appala- 
chian Mountains, by Arthur Keith, and on the hydrography of the 
same region, by H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers, of the Geological 
Survey. 

These special reports, embodying the results of investigations in 
this region, extending over several years, have been prepared at the 
request of the Secretary of Agriculture, and will accompany his re- 
port to Congress on the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachian 
region. 

The results of the investigations made in this region show that the 
destruction of the mountain forests now in progress there is being- 
followed by a consequent erosion of the mountain slopes and valleys, 
an increasing irregularity in the flow of streams, and a silting up of 
the river channels across the lowlands of the bordering States, which 
if continued will seriously and permanently injure the industrial con- 
ditions over considerable portions of these States. 
Yours, respectful 1}% 

Chas. D. Walcott, 

Director. 

The Secretary of the Interior. 
110 



^PP»EI«^DIX B. 



TOPOGEAPHY Al^D GEOLOGY OF THE 
SOUTHEPihT APPALACHIAI^rS. 



ARTHUR KEITPI, 

TJnited. Stales G-eological Survey. 



Ill 



TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE 
SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 



Bv Arthur Keith. 



That portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains in 
which it is proposed to make a national park lies mainly 
in North Carolina, but comprises also small portions of 
South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Virginia. The 
area, as a whole, covers about 12,000 square miles, large 
portions of which are specially adapted to the purposes of 
a park. This region can be reached within a day's jour- 
ney from the large cities east of the Mississippi, a measure 
of accessibility possessed by no other similar district in 
the United States. It is also nearer the center of popula- 
tion than any other mountain district. 

THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. 

Although this region contains many large rivers and im- the^mountafns"* 
portant valleys, it is preeminently a region of mountains. 
It includes the largest areas of land over 5,000 feet in 
height east of the Mississippi. In all, 46 peaks a mile or 
more apart and 41 miles of divide rise above 6,000 feet, 
while 2S8 peaks and 300 miles of divide are 5,000 feet or 
more in height. From the southeastern foot of this mass 
the Piedmont Plateau stretches southeastward with small 
interruptions, finally merging into the coastal plain which 
borders the Atlantic. Past its northwestern foot sweep 
the vallej's of Tennessee and Virginia, with their included 
ridges and smaller mountains. The great mountain mass 
thus limited is composed of a number of large and many 
lesser chains, forming a belt over 300 miles long. Between 
the chains are extensive plateaus, which are themselves 
mountains when compared with the lower valleys that dis- 
sect them. The Blue Ridge forms the southeastei'n and 
the Unaka Mountains the northwestern front of the moun- 

*S. Doc. 8-± 8 113 



114 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

tains. Seventj' miles apai-t in North Cai-olina. they inclose 
many other extensive ranges between them. In Georgia 
they approach within 30 miles of each other, and in lower 
Virginia they coalesce. (Pi. LXV.) 

Bkie Eidge. 'j^]^q southeastern portion of the mountainous area is the 
Blue Ridge, a sinuous divide which parts the waters of the 
Atlantic and the Mississippi. The Blue Ridge stands 
above 3,000 feet in height, except in a number of deep 
gaps and a short stretch at the head of Broad River. The 
northern part of the Blue Ridge consists of ancient pla- 
teaus, whose summits are broad and gentlj' rolling and rise 
to similar heights for long distances. From place to place 
these vaiy between 3,100 and 3,800 feet. Less regularity 
prevails in the southern part of the chain, upon which are 
situated a few individual peaks and ridges of commanding 
height. Chief of these are Grandfather Mountain, 5,964 
feet. Pinnacle, 6,693 feet, and Standing Indian, 5,562 feet. 
Four other points exceed 5,000 feet in height. South of the 
Little Tennessee Basin the Blue Ridge becomes exceedingly 
irregular, both in height and direction, and finally merges 
into the Piedmont Plateau. The one feature which distin- 
guishes the Blue Ridge from other Appalachian Mountains is 
its steep slope on the southeast. This is so extreme as to be, in 
places, precipitous, and it fronts the adjoining foothills and 
the Piedmont Plateau like a rampart. (Pis. LVIII. LIX.) 

The unaka Roughlv parallel to the Blue Ridge and bordering the 

Mountains. c . i n to 

Great Valley of Tennessee and Virginia lie asei'ies of high 
mountains which have many features in common and arise 
from the same causes, although they have separate names. 
These begin at the southwest with the Unaka Mountains 
and are continued in the Great Smoky, the Bald, the 
Unaka, and the Iron mountains. This northwestern front 
of the mountain mass is termed, collectively, the "Unaka 
Mountains," a name which is also applied to two of its 
parts. In the Smoky Mountains several points are but a 
few feet less in altitude than Mount Mitchell — for instance. 
Mount Guyot, 6,636 feet, and Clingmans Dome, 6,619 
feet. From this maximum in the Smokies the Unakas 
have pi"ogressively lower summits in all directions. Cut 
apart as the segments of the chain are by the rivers, no 
average elevations can be stated. South of Big Pigeon 
River most of the summits are above 5,000 feet. North 
of that river few exceed 5,000 feet, but many are over 
4,000. In all, 125 of its summits rise above 5,000 feet, 
and 10 exceed 6,000 feet. The body of high land in the 
Smoky Mountains is the greatest in the Appalachians. 



Senate Doc, No. 84. 



Plate LVin. 





Senate Doc. No, 84. 



Plate LIX. 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



115 



Connecting the Unaka Mountains with the Blue Ridge 
are a series of more or less interrupted chains, most of^'^ses. 
which have a northwest direction. Chief of these are Tus- 
quitee, Cheoah, Nantahala, Cowee, Balsam, Pisgah, New 
Found, Black, Yellow, Roan, Beech, and Stone mountains. 
Supporting and extending these are scores of smaller peaks 
and ridges. Here and there on these separate chains are 
many high points comparable with or exceeding those of 
the Unaka Mountains — for instance, Roan Mountain, 6,313 
feet; Richland Balsam, 6,5-iO feet, and Mount Mitchell, 
6,712 feet, the highest point east of the Rockies. As a 
whole the}^ are much higher than the Blue Ridge, although 
they exceed the Unakas but little. One hundred and fifty- 
six summits are over .5,000 feet, and 86 rise over 6,000 
feet. The Balsam and Pisgah mountains are the highest 
of the transverse ranges and form a maximum correspond- 
ing to the Smoky Mountains. (PI. LXI.) 

Thus, although the Blue Ridge is the watershed of this 
area, the highest points, excepting Mount Mitchell, are 
situated in the Unaka Mountains, where are also located 
the largest bodies of high ground. Accordingh' the rivers 
flow northwest from the Blue Ridge in deeper and deeper 
channels, until their gorges are overshadowed by the peaks 
of the Unakas, a mile in height above them. 

Certain t3'pes of surface prevail throughout the moun- 
tain district. The mountains rest upon a low base, which 
varies from 1.500 to 2. .500 feet in elevation. The rise of 
2,000-5,000 feet up to the summits is made between nar- 
row limits, so that the slopes are steep for the most part. 
Narrow valleys follow the rivers, in places from 2 to 5 
miles in width, and with moderate eminences. From their 
borders rise the mountains, with slopes abruptly chang- 
ing 20 degrees or more. These have a marked similarity 
throughout the mountains, whether high or low. The 
summits are usually rounded, and cliffs only here and there 
mar the smoothness of the slopes. The general aspect of 
these mountains is one of flowuig curves, and their gran- 
deur is impressed on the observer b}^ their mass rather 
than bv outline. 



Transve rse 
mouii tain 



Surface forma. 



THE RIVER SYSTEMS. 



Probablj' no region in the United Stat-es is better watered 
or better drained than this. Most of the water passes into 
the Mississippi, through Tennessee River and its tributa- 
ries. Chief of these are the Ocoee, Hiwassee, Little 



Direction o f 
3ow in rivers. 



agL' 



116 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Tennessee. Tuckaseegee, Big Pigeon, French Broad. Noli- 
chuck}-, AVatauga, and Holston rivers. These all flow 
from the Blue Ridge northwestward through the Unaka 
Mountains and separate that chain into portions which 
have received individual names. In the northeastern por- 
tion of this region the New River, a branch of the Ohio. 
rises and flows northeastward. Southeastward from the 
Blue Ridge a large number of rivers flow into the Atlantic. 
These are the Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Cha- 
tooga rivers. In the northeastern corner of Georgia rises 
the Chattahoochee, flowing southwestward into the Gulf 
of Mexico. Thus this region distributes its waters in all 
directions and is practically the apex of the di-ainage of 
Radial drain- j^iany t^Qugaud Square miles. From the Blue Ridare near 
Blowing Rock the waters ma}- run through Watauga River 
into the Tennessee, through New River into the Ohio, or 
through the Catawba and the Yadkin into the Atlantic. 
From the Blue Ridge near the head of Hiwassee River 
they may flow through Chatooga River into the Atlantic, 
through the Chattahoochee into the Gulf of Mexico, or 
through the Hiwassee into the Mississippi. Into these 
large rivers flow hundreds of lesser rivers and creeks, 
which cover the country with a most intricate network. 
They are fed bj^ m3'riads of springs which run from year 
to year with unceasing flow. (Pis. LX, LXII, LXIII.) 
rirefsl''^^'* '" Starting southeastward from heights of 3,000 feet or 
more, the streams tumble rapidly from the Blue Ridge 
and reach the Piedmont Plateau at heights from 1,000 to 
1,500 feet. Rivers running in the opposite direction 
emerge upon the Appalachian Valle}' at heights from 1,000 
to 2,000 feet, the highest points being at the northeast. 
Few of these rivers flow as far as 100 miles in the moun- 
tains, so that this fall of 1,000 or 2,000 feet makes a very 
high average grade. The stretches of smooth water are 
seldom long, and the descent is mainly accomplished by 
countless rapids and minor falls. On the larger rivers 
few falls exceed 10 feet. Falls of 25 and 30 feet can be 
found here and there upon the smaller rivers, while in 
places the creeks and branches have direct plunges as 
great as 300 feet. That the scenerj^ along the streams is 
picturesque scarcely needs to be said. From rapid to fall, 
and then a stretch of placid depth, the courses of the 
streams are pictures of kaleidoscopic variety. Come to 
them where j^ou may, the charm is there, and fresh 
beauties are viewed at everj' bend. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LX. 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXI. 




Senate Doc. No, 



Plate LXII 




l-ii FRENCH BROAD RIVER, AT PAINT ROCK, N. C. I^^e^■l>• Hi'.; 




(i'l OCOEE RIVER, IN UNAKA MOUNTAINS, TENNESSEE. (Seep. 116.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXIII. 




SOUTHEBN APPALACHIAK REGION. 117 



Volume of flow 
in rivers. 



From season to season the rivers vary in flow. Their 
least volume is in the early fall, when they have been 
reduced by the droughts and heat of summer. Only the 
smallest branches are ever entirely dried, however, and 
the severest droughts fail to stop any considerable stream. 
The greatest volumes are attained in the spring, when the 
snows melt rapidly and the winter's accumulation of water 
is leaving the soil. The freshets are not limited altogether 
to the spring, however; a cloud-burst, for example, may 
swell a lesser stream tenfold, or a hard rain of four ox 
five days maj^ flood even the largest river. In the upper 
courses of the streams, where the grades are highest, 
floods produce exceedingly swift currents, which are able ^p'^'"' °* ^°^' 
to destroy obstmctions and barriers which at ordinar}^ 
stages would seem insurmountable. The rapid delivery 
of the waters from the stream heads make a sudden con- 
centration where the branches have united and the grades 
are less, causing deep water and overflow. Thus, four 
days of hard rain recently raised Catawba River 30 feet 
and overflowed miles of bottom lands. The power of the 
upper and steeper streams at such times is almost incred- 
ible; bowlders tons in weight become mere playthings. 
On the lower reaches in deeper waters and slackened cur- 
rents no fragments larger than cobblestones are moved, 
but wholesale changes in the shapes of the bottom lands 
are often accomplished. The same steep grades which 
cause the rapid floods are equally efl'ective when the rains 
have ceased, so that the waters subside about as quickly as 
they rise. Aside from these temporary changes in vol- 
ume the flow of the rivers is very steady, dependent as it 
is upon the discharge of countless springs and the seepage 
of waters from the soils. 

CLIMATIC FEATURES IN THE MOUNTAINS. 

The region covered by this mountain mass possesses a Temperature. 
climate which differs greatly from that of the surrounding 
regions. This is manifest first in lower temperatures and 
is due directly to the greater altitudes. The peaks, of 
course, are colder than the intermountain valleys, and 
both are colder than the adjoining Great Valley or the 
Piedmont Plateau. The differences in temperature are 
greater in summer than in winter, so that the climate of 
the higher portions is more equable than that- of the 
vallevs. 



118 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



Kainfall. 



Forest cover. 



lu addition to the cold which it directlj- produces, the 
altitude also affects the climate of this region very decid- 
edly through the precipitation. The prevailing winds of 
the region are southwesterly and are heavily laden with 
moisture derived from the Gulf of Mexico. As these 
winds rise over the mountain slopes they become colder 
and less able to retain moisture, which comes within the 
mountain's grasp as rain or snow. The birth of shreds of 
cloud in the uprising wind and their union into masses 
that shroud the mountains can be seen on every hand. 
Through them come glimpses of peak and forest, in a soft- 
ness and beautj^ far beyond words. The direct effect of 
altitude in chilling the winds is assisted by the cooling 
effect of the almost universal forests. The forests in turn 
are fostered by the rainfall and humiditj-, and the two 
processes go hand in hand. In the winter mv^ch of the 
precipitation is in the form of snow. This is protected 
from melting by the forest cover and accumulates so as to 
mantle the ground for weeks, or even months. In this 
way a great stoi'e of moisture is retained and finds its way 
into the soil, to be absorbed in part by the forests when 
growth begins in the spring. Snow sometimes falls on 
the higher mountains by the first of October, and the last 
snow may remain until the middle of ]March. 

Between the temperature of the highest tops and that of 
the larger and lower valleys included in the mountam 
region there is a great difference. This is expx"essed in 
nature most prominently by the great variety of trees, 
shrubs, and plants. There is probablj' no region in the 
United States containing more species than this, which is 
appropriately termed the "botanist's paradise." During 
May and June it becomes a vast flower garden of unrivaled 
rarit}' and beauty. Rhododendron and azalea bloom mile 
on mile, or a score of blossoms ai-e trodden at a step. In 
autumn the purple haze and the blaze of color in the foliage 
form a panorama that can not be surpassed. The amount 
of the forest is quite as striking as its variety, and is one of 
the most impressive features of the mountains. Owing to 
the warmth and humidity of the atmosphere the individ- 
ual trees attain great size. White pines reach heights of 
200 feet and poplars are 25 feet in girth. Thus, the exist- 
ence of the forest cover as a whole and of the individual 
species that are favored by colder climates is dependent 
upon the altitude, which cools the air and brings moisture 
to the surface of the earth. Its favorable situation with 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXIV. 




STEEP FOREST-COVERED SLOPE OF HAWKSBILL MOUNTAIN, SEEN ACROSS THE GORGE OF LINVILLE RIVER. 

(.See p. lis iind Pis. XXIX. LXXII.) 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 119 

regard to the moist, warm winds from the Gulf combines with 
a general altitude unequaled east of the Mississippi to pro- 
duce a unique and remarkable vegetation. (PI. LXIV.) 

THE GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. 

The sreoloo-ic formations which underlie this mountain 
district maj^ be divided into four large groups. Each dif- 
fers widely from the others in age, and has very distinct 
features of its own. These broad differences have ex- 
pressed themselves in such major topographic features as 
the Appalachian Valley, the Appalachian Mountains, and 
the Piedmont Plateau. These differences are also largely 
responsible for the principal variations in the character of 
the surface in the mountain district itself. 



The Appalachian Valley is underlain by a series of lime- 



Li me stone 
jroup. 



stones, shales, and sandstones, mainly of late Cambrian 
and Silurian age. forming the youngest of the four groups 
in this region. Small outliers of these formations are in- 
cluded within the area of the mountains near the border 
of the Appalachian Valley. 

The second group occupies the northwestern border of g^ Jup.'' " ^ ' ' ® 
the mountain district, chieflj- northeast of the French 
Broad River. It consists of a series of quartzites, sand- 
stones, conglomerates, and shales of Lower Cambrian age. 
A second large area of these rocks occupies the Blue 
Ridge and adjacent territory, nearly in the center of this 
district. 

The third group is of Cambrian age. It occupies the g,j;j™si°°^"''te 
northwest border of the mountain mass, corresjaonding in 
position to the previous group but best developed south- 
west of the French Broad River in the Smoky and Unaka 
mountains. The group consists of conglomerates, graj-- 
wackes, sandstones, schists, and slates, and is called the 
Ocoee group. This and the preceding two groups were 
composed of the waste from older rocks, which was de- 
posited under water. The thickness of the strata is ap- 
proximatelj' the same in the Ocoee group and the formations 
of the Appalachian Valley. The Lower Cambrian quartz- 
ites and shales of the second group have only from one- 
fourth to one-third of the thickness of either of the 
preceding groups. 

The fourth group is much the largest of all, both in actual ""^'^ group. 
bulk and area. It consists in the main of formations of 



120 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

the Archean, or oldest known age. The different rocks 
include several kinds of granite, diorite, mica-gneiss, 
hornblende-gneiss, and various schists. A large number 
of these are of igneous origin, but the original nature of 
many of the gneisses and schists is unknown. Formations 
also included in this group are the ancient volcanic rocks. 
These are developed most prominently in connection with 
the Cambrian quartzites in the northeastern part of the 
mountain district. 

KEIiATION OF KOCKS TO STJEFACE. 

rocks" '"" ° Much of the surface of the Appalachian Mountains is 
exceedingly ancient. During the later geologic periods 
it has been subjected to the various natural agencies of 
destruction and has been worn down according as the 
rocks presented at the surface were susceptible to these 
influences. The materials composing these formations 
are attacked in varying degrees by solution and bj' chem- 
ical processes connected with atmospheric and under- 
ground water. Certain minerals — for instance, carbonate 
of lime — are readily dissolved bj- natural waters, and the 
rock in wasting away leaves behind onl}^ the less soluble 
portions in forms of cIslj. To this capability is directly 
due the reduction of the Great Valley below the mountain 
mass. Other minerals — for instance, feldspar — are in part 
dissolved and in part chemically altered and decomposed 
by natural waters, so that the coherence of the rock- which 
contains them is largelj^ destroyed. Two groups in this 
region have a large proportion of feldspar in their makeup, 
and their surfaces have been gradually lowered b}' its 
breaking down. These are the Ocoee group and the 
Archean group. A third mineral — quartz — is compara- 
tively little changed bj^ solution or chemical action near 
the surface. Formations made up in large part of this 
mineral retain their altitudes most persistenth^ and are 
usually the last to be reduced. This composition is most 
pronounced in the Lower Cambrian group, but is shared 
also by the Ocoee group and the Archean group. Although 
the thickness of the Lower Cambrian quartzites is so much 
less than that of the other groups, their resistance to solu- 
tion has caused them to remain upheld in very high ridges 
and peaks. To this are due the cliff's of Chilhowee, Camp 
Creek, and Iron mountains and the rugged crags of Grand- 
father. In the case of the Ocoee and Archean groups 
their immense thickness and the amount of quartz which 



Senate Doc. No, 84. 



Plate LXV. 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 121 

thej' contain have maintained the greatest elevations pre- 
sented in this region. Of this the might}' domes of the 
Smokies, the Balsams, and the Roan, and the loftj'' peaks 
of the Blacks, are witnesses. (PI. LXVI.) 

The moist atmosphere is conducive to the rapid decaj^ ^ration. "^^"'^ 
of the rocks, which break up chieflj' under the attack of 
rain, fi'ost, the roots of the trees, the underground waters, 
and organic acids. At first decay works in along the vari- 
ous partings, resulting in the loosening of large masses, 
which gradually become smaller, until finally nothing is 
left of them except claj' and the more obdurate bits of 
rock. The rocks reach the surface only over very small 
patches, while in places the disintegration attains a depth 
as great as 50 feet. On sloping surfaces the loose material 
is maintained in its place solely by friction. When this 
is lessened or overconae from anj^ cause, the residual mat- 
ter, be it clay or rock fragments, slides down the slopes 
until the friction is again sufficient to retain it in one posi- 
tion. Thus are formed immense thicknesses of loose mate- 
rial washed down from steep slopes and accumulated in 
the hollows and flatter places. This material gradually 
works its waj' downhill as it is pushed along by the freez- 
ing of the water which it contains, or is rendered more 
unstable as the water transforms it into mud. Eventually 
it finds its way into the streams aud is carried by slow 
stages into the sea. (PL LXVII.) 

PROTECTION or THE SOILS. 

The chief agent which checks this process of removal is 
the forest cover, even though the penetrating roots and 
the acids due to vegetation induce rock decomposition. 
These same roots, however, hold the loose material in place 
and hinder its tendency to slide downhill. With this Roots and 

, , , , leaves protect 

assistance loose soils are upheld on slopes at angles f lilly the son. 
double those which they could maintain unaided. Besides 
this direct check to the waste of slopes by increased fric- 
tion, -the action of the forests is as great in another way. 
Loose materials are washed downhill during rainstorms 
b}' even the tiniest rivulets. In open fields these gather 
in a few minutes and form deeper and deeper channels with 
each succeeding storm, finally removing the loose material 
down to the bare rock. This process is almost wholly pre- 
vented by the network of roots and the cover of leaves, both 
living and dead, and the water concentrates into rivulets 
by seeping through the soils so slowly that it carries no 



122 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

sediment. The waters drain off in the hollows and small 
streams whose channels have been fitted hy long use to 
withstand the attacks of rushing water. 

Soil stripped Countless illustrations of this pi'ocess can be seen dur- 
ing anj rainstorm. Streams which drain consideral)le 
areas of cleared land rise fast and become turbid with nuid. 
Those which drain areas protected by forests rise much 
more slowly, and by comparison the water could be called 
clear, except in the most violent storms. This result is of 
course most striking at the very headwaters, the little 
streams rising in the fields and in the woods. The effects 
of this work are seen in the innumerable gullies which 
gash fields left to the elements for a,nj time. In fact, un- 
less checked bj^ the most constant attention, these gullies 
soon strip off the soil and clay and ruin the fields. In 
the forests, on the other hand, one rarely sees a slope of 
soil not covered bj^ vegetation, and it is onh' along the 
immediate banks of the streams that raw slopes of loose 
material are exposed. In short, in this region of deep 
residual soils the influence of the forest is paramount. It 
is a fact well known among the mountaineers that the soils 
are far more fertile when first cleared of timber than 
ever again. It is equally well known among the farmers 
along the river bottoms that the same crops have been 
planted with the same suceess for scores of years. These 
latter soils, however, are refreshed from time to time by 
the overflowing waters, which have swept off fertile mate- 
rials f I'om the steeper slopes above. The natural fertility 
of these mountain soils is very great, as is abundantly 
shown by the tremendous forest growth. The pristine 
strength of the soil soon wanes in the clearings, and there 
ensues a loss which is permanent for at least a generation. 
To convince one's self of the existence of this condition it 
is only necessary to visit the region. 

storage of wa- In addition to the loss inflicted by forest cutting upon 

ter reduced. •' i i 

the steep slopes themselves great damage also results to 
the lands lying farther down the streams. The deep clays 
and underlying rocks form a kind of gigantic sponge, which 
stores up water when it is abundant. When the forests are 
stripped away the water collects and rufts off' with vastly 
greater speed, and much evaporates, so that not only is 
less stored up, but the discharge is more iri-egular and tem- 
porary. Destructive floods result and droughts are wider 
spread. Thus, viewed from the standpoint either of util- 
ity or beauty, these unrivaled forests are the keystone of 
the arch. 



Senate Doc, No. 84. 



Plate LXVI. 



~. S 



5- ^ 

: I 

- O 

S c 

— H 

S I 

2 ^ 



2 > 

-• o 



— 5 
^ O 




Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXVII. 




LAND EROSION, NEAR MARION, N. C, SHOWING RAPID REMOVAL OF THE SOILS BY HEAVY RAINS WHEN 
THE FOREST COVER IS REDUCED OR DESTROYED. (See pp. 26-28, 122.) 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXVIIl. 




YONAHLOSSEE ROAD ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPE OF GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN. 



^P»r»ENDIX c. 



HYDRO GRAPH Y OF THE SOUTHERI^ 

APPALAOHIAI^S. 



H. A. PRESSBY, Hydrographer, and E. W. MYERS, Resident Hydrographer, 

United States Oeologieal Su.rvey. 



123 



THE HYDROGRAPHY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 



PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATXIKES OF THE REGION. 

The Southern Appalachian Mountains, located in the 
States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ten- 
nessee, Georgia, and Alabama, stand out from and above 
the surrounding country as an elevated phJ^siographic 
unit. They rise above the Piedmont Plateau, which borders 
them on the east and south, and above the vallev of East 
Tennessee, which lies on their western flanks, to a height 
of from 2,000 to nearh' 6,000 feet above sea level. 

This is preeminently a region of mountains. (See PI. IV.) ^.^.-^^j^^" "'*'«'''^<* 
The slopes are mostly covered with deep soil, which is kept 
in an open, porous condition b}' the humus that enters 
into its composition and is spread over the surface, and 
which is held in place b}^ the myriads of roots of trees and 
shrubs and grasses growing upon it. (See PI. LXIX a.) 
In this region the raindrops are battered to pieces by 
the twigs and leaves and the water is caught by the grasses, 
shrubs, and ferns below and soaks through the covering 
humus into the soil and rock fissures underneath. (See PI. 
LXIX h.) The portion that is neither used by the vegeta- 
tion nor evaporated from the surface emerges about the 
mountain slopes weeks or months after its fall in countless 
springs that feed with striking regularity the many brooks, 
creeks, and rivers which thus have their sources here. 
These conditions combine to make this one of the best 
watered regions on the continent. 

This region embraces an irregular, mountainous table- 
land, lying between the steep and well-defined escarpment 
of the Blue Ridge on the southeast and the less rugged, 
but higher and more massive Unaka chain on the north- 
west. Numerous cross ridges separated by narrow valleys 
and river gorges connect these two ranges or extend out 
between them. The region, taken as a whole, has an average 
elevation of more than 2,500 feet, but there are many 
peaks that rise to about 5,000 feet, and a considerable 

125 



126 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

numbex' to over 6,000 feet. The mountain slopes, though 
usually steep, are forest- covered, and have a deep, fertile 
soil of varying physical character, which is very readily 
eroded and washed away when the forest covering is re- 
moved. The Bkie Ridge, though not so high as the moun- 
tains to the west, is an older range and constitutes the 
divide between the waters flowing to the east and those 
flowing to the west, the streams flowing in either direction 
having their head springs in or near the gaps of this 
■divide. (Pis. LXIX, LXX.) 
The Blue Ridge jn considering' the Blue Ridge as the great divide of 

the great divide. -,,, '^ . ° • n 

this, regioii .two portions of it are especiall}^' notable. 
(See PI. XII.7 /i^ear Grandfather Mountain, the highest 
point on the Blue iRidge, the New or Kanawha River rises 
and flows iioithward through Virginia and thence north- 
westward into the''ibhfo; the Yadkin rises a few yards dis- 
tant on the eastr and' ftows northeast and then southeast 
into the Atlaiitict the'Dinville, a branch of the Catawba, 
rises on the west side and flows south-southeast, cutting 
across the Blue Ridge in a deep gorge, while a few miles 
farther west the Watauga and Nolichucky flow northwest 
and southwest, respectively, into the Tennessee and the 
Gulf. One hundred and fifty miles farther southwest, 
where the Blue Ridge is somewhat broken up near its 
junction with the Balsam cross ridge, the French Broad 
rises and flows eastward; the Saluda flows southeast; the 
Savannah south, and, the Tuckasegee west-southwest, into 
the Tennessee. (PL LXXl.) 

The most striking characteristic of the Blue Ridge is 
the great apparent difi'erence in height when viewed from 
its two sides, the streams flowing toward the east plung- 
ing down its sides in narrow V-shaped gorges for a thou- 
sand feet or more in a distance of a few miles until they 
reach the gentle slopes of the Piedmont Plain. (See PI. 
XXVlI). Those flowing westward have a much easier 
descent. 
The river ^his is well shown by the great falls on the Linville 

gorg^es. * "^ 

River, which, rising on the western slopes of Grand- 
father Mountain, in Mitchell County, flows in a general 
southerly course to its junction with the Catawba River, 
near the southern end of the Linville Mountains. The 
falls proper, which are located about 3 miles below the 
Mitchell-Burke County line, have a perpendicular plunge 
of 40 feet, and the cascades above are about 50 feet in 
height, this fall of 90 feet occurring in a linear distance 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXIX. 




(-•1) RHODODENDRON UNDERGROWTH HOLDING THE SOIL AND THE WATER; 
Undergrowth liki- this liolds in phicu imU'linituly thu deep. k-rtiU- stn\ oi the stet'i) Aripiihu-hijin mountain slopes. 




{B) SEAMS IN THE ROCK FACILITATE THE STORAGE OF WATER FROM HEAVY RAIN. 

These supplement the work of the soil on the mountain slopes in storinis the ext-essive rains and giving out this 
water during the drier seasons of the year. But when the forests are de>^troyed, both the soils and the half- 
fleeayed rocks are rapidly carried away, and the mountain rains rush into the streams below, causing floods of 
increasing violence. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXX. 




(Photoj^raphed b.v Scadin.) 



UPPER FALLS, WHITEWATER RIVER. (See pp. 29, 12S.) 



The Whitewater i.s one of the several streams rising on these mountain slopes which unite in the hill eountrv 
below to form the Savannah River, and to operate the large manufacturing establishments at Augusta, Ga. " 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXXI. 




(.Photogruplieii by Liiuisuy.) 
LOWER CULLASAJA FALLS, MACON COUNTY. N. C. (See pp. 29, 12(1.) 
On one of the stmrces t>f the Little Tennessee Kivor. 



■ ijini-- 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 127 

of about 100 feet. For a distance of about 10 miles be- 
low the falls the river flows in a series of cascades through 
a narrow gorge, whose sides are from 500 to nearly 2,000 
feet high, the walls being cut down through the eroded Lin- 
ville quartzites into thegrt.. ' e below. (See PI. LXXII.) 
In the first 6 miles below the falls the descent averages 208 
feet to the mile, and the total descent from the head of the 
falls to the lower end of the gorge, a distance of about 10 
miles, is 1,800 feet, as determined by a line of levels. 
Along the upper 6 or 7 miles of this distance the bottom of 
the gorge is scarcely wider than the stream. The total fall 
of the stream from its source in Linville Gap to its mouth 
is about 3,030 feet in a distance of about 36^ miles, the 
average fall per mile being about 83 feet. 

The Watauga Ri^'er also rises near Linville Gap, and 
flows first in a northeasterly and then in a northwesterly 
direction, its length from its source to Butler, Tenn., 
where it leaves the mountainous region, being about 38 
miles. The total fall in this distance is about 2,000 feet, 
and the average slope, therefore, about 61 feet per mile. 
Of this 2,000 feet, between 900 and 1,000 feet are found 
in the first 6 miles, where the stream rushes down the 
slopes of Grandfather Mountain. 

As is the case with most of the other streams rising on 
the westei'n slope and flowing westward across the elevated 
plateau, this stream has its channel for a part of its course 
in a rather broad and smooth valley before entering the 
steep and rocW gorge of its middle course. Here it cuts 
its wa}^ through the Unaka mountains in a deep canyon, 
about 8 miles in length, where the fall averages about 
65 feet per mile, but is very much greater at numerous 
places, the channel being extremely rough and )>roken. 
The depth of the gorge through the Unakas is nearly 
2,000 feet, but the walls slope down much more gently 
than those of the Linville just described, though they 
often show precipitous rock cliffs several hundred feet in 
height. 

The Unaka range on the western edge of this plateau, tiil^un^as"^""' 
unlike the Blue Ridge, has slopes equally steep on 
both sides, descending often some 4,000 feet from the 
crest of the mountains to the stream beds. In the upper 
part of their courses all of the rivers of the Unakas par- 
take of the nature of mountain torrents, with the greatest 
fall near their sources, and in their lower courses they flow 
in vallevs where there has been much clearing, the amount 



128 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 

of water increasing rapidh' at the time of rain on the moun- 
tain sides. In manj' parts the stream valleys are simply 
mountain gorges, with steep, vertical sides, and with verj'^ 
small flood plains. Water powers could be developed at 
many places along these rivers, the fall in the upper 
part reaching, in some cases, 100 feet in an almost vertical 
drop, though the quantity of water at these points is com- 
paratively small. When the rivers reach the plains lying 
at the edge of the mountain system their fall is very 
much less, yet at frequent intervals decided drops occur, 
and the flow is so increased by the numerous tributaries 
that water powers of considerable magnitude and value 
can be developed. 

THE RAINFALL AND RUN-OFF IN THIS REGION. 

In this region the influence of elevation on climate is 
supreme; the summers are colder, the winters more 
severe, and the climate is drier and more salubrious than 
at points not far distant, but outside of the high mountain 
area. The trend of the mountains to the southwest influ- 
ences the prevailing winds, while the great diversity in 
topographic features give rise to many interesting climatic 
peculiarities. 

On the mountains near the southern end of the Appala- 
chian system the rainfall is very heavy, but, on the other 
hand, in many central valleys the rainfall is as light and. 
the climate as mild as at many points east of the Blue 
Ridge. 
Climate de- The area embraced in the proposed reserve belongs to that 
ther Bureau pa- portion of the eastern United States characterized bv the 

per ^ 

greatest annual rainfall, there being places along the south- 
eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge which receive an annual 
precipitation not exceeded elsewhere in the United States, 
except along the northwest Pacific coast. The average 
I'ainfall for a period of more than ten years at various 
places in the southern i^ppalachian Mountains in northern 
Georgia and western North Carolina and South Carolina 
has been nearly 73 inches, while at times the precipitation 
for a single month has been between 20 and 30 inches, the 
greatest amount falling in the three summer months and 
the least in autumn, the amounts in winter and spring being 
about the same. It is worthy of remark that the average 
pi-ecipitation at Asheville is onlj' about 42 inches — the 
smallest rainfall record made at any station in the region. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXXII. 




ll'llotiiKiiiiihocl by J.liLilva, 
THE GORGE OF THE LINNVILLE RIVER ACROSS THE BLUE RIDGE. (See pp. 29, 126.) 
On these steep, rocky walls are forests which should forever be preserved. 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXXIII. 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 129 

These and other facts concerning the general climatic 
conditions of this region are brought out in the accom- 
panying paper by Professor Henrj^ of the United States 
Weather Bureau, showing the records of temperature, 
I'ainfall, and humidity at the stations of the Weather 
Bureau between Lj^nchburg. Va., on the north, and Mont- 
gomery, Ala., on the south, and fi'om Salisbury, on the 
east, to Knoxville, on the west. 

The entire region is characterized by extremely heavy j^^eavy rain- 
rainfall in very short periods of time, and owing to the 
steep slopes and the absence of lakes, ponds, or marshes, 
which could act as reservoirs and hold back the storm 
waters, protracted heavy precipitation is followed by a 
rather rapid increase in the flow of the streams, the rise 
lasting generally for only a few hours, and the stream 
soon assuming its normal stage of flow. This is more 
especially the case where there are forest clearings. Con- 
sequently these violent rains, under certain conditions — 
i. e., where rains are excessive and clearings extensive, or 
where forest areas are burned over so as to destroy the 
humus and undergrowth — give rise to floods which are 
very destructive to property and which cause occasionally 
the loss of human life. To a certain extent the forest acts 
as a reservoir, for it keeps the soil porous, allows it to 
absorb and hold the water for a time, and gradually gives 
it forth in the form of springs and rivulets. Where the 
areas have been deforested, however, the rain water forms 
small but swift-flowing torrents down the sides of the 
mountains, and quickly reaches the streams below. Deep 
channels are cut in the mountain sides, and all of the top 
fertile soil is carried off, leaving only the underljdng clays, 
which are of poor quality and do not yield to cultivation. 

After a storm the streams rising in the deforested areas 
are extremely turbid with mud from the mountain sides, 
while those from the forest areas are comparatively clear. 
This ei"osion can be noted by the most casual observer, and 
it forms one of the greatest menaces to the region. The 
soil is deep and fertile, as is shown by the splendid growth 
of forest trees and by its jdeld under the first cultivation, 
but it is only a question of time, if the forests are wantonly 
cut, when all of the soil and vegetation will be washed from 
the mountain sides and nothing will remain but the bare 
rock. 

These floods, due to protracted rains, are also destruc- 
tive in strips of valle}' lands bordering the streams in the 

*S. Doc. 84 9 



130 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

mountain region and in the wider valleys along their 
courses across the lowlands beyond. Bridges, mills, set- 
tlements, public roads, dams for developing water power, 
indeed, everj^thing in the course of such a mountain 
stream is liable to be swept away by its rapidly increasing 
force. 
g^Damages from During the spring of 1901 this region was visited by the 
most severe rain storm of its recent history. Many of 
the streams rose to unprecedented heights, and the flood 
damages to the farms, bridges, and dwellings on or near 
practicalhr all of the streams flowing from these southern 
Appalachian Mountains were enormous. During the sum- 
mer season later floods added largelj^ to this destruction. 
Along the valle}' of the Catawba River in its course 
across the two Carolinas these flood damages to farms, 
bridges, highways, buildings, etc., during the high-water 
season of 1901, aggregated nearly two million dollars. 
The storm damages during the same season along the 
tributaries of the James, the Roanoke, the Yadkin, and 
the Broad, in Virginia and North Carolina, added a million 
dollars: and those on the tributaries of other streams rising 
about the Blue Ridge in South Carolina and Georgia add 
still another million, making four million in all for the 
streams flowing from the Blue Ridge across the Piedmont 
Plateau. Add to this the damages along the streams flow- 
ing out of the southern Appalachian Mountains to the 
north, west, and southwest, and we have another and a 
larger story of destruction: 

On the New (Kanawha) and other smaUei adjacent streams 

in Virginia and West Virginia $1,000,000 

On the Watauga, in North Carolina and Tennessee 2, 000, 000 

On the Nolichucli)', in North Carolina and Tennessee 1, 500, 000 

On the French Broad and Pigeon, in North Carolina and 

Tennessee 500,000 

On the Tucliasegee, Little Tennessee, and Hiwassee, in 

North Carolina and Tennessee 500, 000 

On the tributaries of western Georgia and Alabama streams 

rising in this region 500, 000 

This aggregate of $10,000,000 tells a story of destruc- 
tion never before equaled in this region. Bridges were 
swept away by the score; houses b}^ the hundred; thou- 
sands of miles of public roads were washed away almost 
beyond the possibility of repair. (See Pi. LXXVI.) The 
soil in the narrow, irregular, fringing vallej' lands in the 
mountain region was in many cases partially and in other 
cases completely washed awa}'. In the lowlands beyond, 



Senate Doc, No. 84. 



Plate LXXIV. 




(-i) SAWMILL WRECKED BY THE FLOODS ON THE NOLICHUCKY RIVER, 
EAST TENNESSEE, MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.) 




(i') DEBRIS FROM WRECK OF SAWMILL AND LOG BOOM ON LINNVILLE RIVER BY FLOODS, IN WESTERN" 
NORTH CAROLINA, MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.) 



Senate Doc, No. 



Plate LXXV. 



^.S^r- 




(.1) HIGHWAY BRIDGE WASHED AWAY BY FLOODS. (See pp. 32, 130.) 

JIan5' bridges on these Southern mountain .streams, even when built on successively higher piers, have been 
washed away several times by floods during the past few years. 




{B) PUBLIC ROAD RUINED BY FLOODS, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. C. 

The clearing of the mountain slopes and the destruction of humus and undergrowth by forest fires cause the 
water Irom heavy rams to rush down the mountain sides on the public roads, and to wash the latter away 
The damages to the public highways in the mountain counties of western North Carolina from this cause ' 
during the past tew years are estimated to have reached several million dollars 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXXVI. 




v-l. FLOOD DAMAGES TO MINING SETTLEMENT, NORWOOD, W. VA., 1901. 




^ 



^■■^- 



(11) FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILROAD AND MINING SETTLEMENT, KEYSTONE, 



W. VA., 1901. 



The diimages from floods in streams rising in tliese Southern Appalachian mountains during the spring and 
summer of 1901 aggregated 810,000,000; and during the follomng December, January, Fobruarv, and March 
they reached 88,000,000 additional, making a total of 818,000,000. 



Senate Doc, No. 84. 



Plate LXXVII. 




TOOCOA FALLS, HABERSHAM COUNTY, GA. (See pp. 29, 138, 139.) 



SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 131 

the broader bordering valleys were damaged beyond recu- 
peration. Some areas were denuded of soil, while others 
were covered with desert-like, almost barren white sand 
extending for miles along the course of a stream. (See 
PL XXXIV.) 

But while the damage from the storm of 1901 exceeds 
that of any preceding year, it is common knowledge among 
the mountaineers that annually the floods have risen irreg- 
ularly but steadily higher, and that their destructive work 
has been increasing in proportion as the forest clearings and 
the forest burnings have proceeded. We ma}' confidently 
expect that floods of the future will exceed those of the 
past. 

Manj' of these streams have fine water powers along their and""^^!**^'*^"'"^ 
courses, the value of which is limited by their low- water flow. '^'■^• 
Deforestation means the destruction of the only source of 
natural storage in the region, and that the rainfall will 
reach the stream almost as soon as it falls, so that in the 
dry season there will be no reserve supply to augment the 
low-water flow, which is drawn principally from subsurface 
sources. These water powers are a potential source of 
prosperity to the region in which thej^ are found, and since 
their value depends entirely upon the water available, any- 
thing tending to reduce its amount or to change its distri- 
bution by increasing the violence of the floods and at the 
same time diminishing the low-water flow, will work injury 
in precise proportion to the change produced. This result 
is inevitable upon the deforestation of the drainage basin, 
and on many of the streams has already become evident. 
It is the general testimony of the older inhabitants of the 
region that the streams are now much more irregular than 
they were before active and widespread clearing operations 
had been begun. And while the evidence of the "oldest 
inhabitant," as an individual, may not be quite all that 
can be desired, collectively it is entitled to large credence. 
Already 24: per cent of the total area of this region has been 
cleared of its forests. 

Lumbering operations are at present rather widespread, tio^if'bf ?i^™?- 
and the forests in many regions already begin to show' 
evidence of their efl^ect. The large mills are usually steam 
sawmills, to which the logs are either transported by a 
system of tramroads radiating from the site of the mill, 
or, where the mill is located near a stream of sufficient 
size, the logs are brought down by splashing. A number 
of small sawmills have been erected which make use of the 



, men. 



132 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 

abundant water power furnished by the various streams. 
These are, as a rule, of small capacitj-, from 500 to 1,000 
feet per day, and do mainly the custom sawing for the 
region near by. In addition to these there are numerous 
small sawmills, owned for the most part b3' some iii'm 
holduig extensive tracts of forest, and these are moved 
from place to place as the near-bj' timber becomes nearlj- 
exhausted. 

In anj' case the effect of the sawmill on the forests is 
the same. All the trees available for use in anj' manner 
are cut into plank, and the careless methods destroy the 
greater part of the young growth, which would otherwise 
in course of time replenish the supply. The logs when 
cut are "snaked " downhill by mule team, soon cutting a 
deep channel in the earth, which the waters from the finst 
rain storm turn into a yawning gully that rapidly spreads 
in extent. (See PI. LIII.) The tops and those parts of the 
trunk unsuitable for lumber are left on the ground to 
furnish fuel for the first fire or a breeding place for insects 
destructive to tree life. 
Forest destmc- In addition to the lumbering operations, the tan-bark 

tion for tan- , _ . 

bark. industrj' is making great inroads on forest growth. 

Every j^ear thousands of cords of bark are stripped in 
these mountains, and each load means that some giant of 
the forest has been felled and lies useless, for the trunks 
are rarely used for timber, the expense of transporting 
them to the mills from the high mountain slopes being in 
most cases prohibitive. 
Destructive But great as is the work of the lumberman in this forest 

work of forest ... i • i j i n i 

Hres. destruction, his part has in the past been small when com- 

pared with that of the forest fire and that of the farmer in 
clearing land for agricultural purposes. Forest fires have 
been one of the great curses in the southern Appalachians 
as truly as elsewhere in the country. They were common in 
the da3^s of Indian occupation. Thus, thev have preceded 
the lumberman, but the}' have also accompanied him and 
followed in his wake. Their work has been rendered 
far more destructive because the lumberman has left his 
brush scattered among the remaining growth in such way 
that in the burning it has fed the fire. 

In some regions these fires have destroj^ed the foi'ests 
entirely. Especially has this been the case where the soil 
has been thin and composed largely of humus. The fire 
has destroyed this humus and the remaining soil has soon 
washed away, leaving the trees on the bare surface of rock. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 133 

to dry out and die. (SeePl. XLVIII5.) Even under more 
favorable conditions these fires have destroj'ed the under- 
growth, and the larger trees have been burned near their 
roots in such a waj'^ as to cause their destruction. (See 
PI. XLVI.) The repeated fires have frequently exter- 
minated the grasses and other forage plants, so that instead 
of improving the pasturage, which has often been the 
object in starting the forest fire, the result has been, in the 
course of years, its almost total destruction. 

This burning of the humus and the undergrowth in the ^.g^^^J^^^^j, Jg'J,|^ 
forests alwaj's seriousl}^ affects the flow of the streams. ^"^^ '° ^"'^'*''™^- 
No one who has ever been in a forest during a heavy rain 
storm can fail to realize this fact. In the virgin forests 
the raindrops are caught by the underbrush and pass down- 
ward through the humus into the less porous soil and the 
rock fissures beneath, to reappear weeks and months later 
in the form of numberless springs. But where this under- 
brush and humus have been burned away, one can not fail 
to see that during a heavy rain storm much less of the water 
soaks directh' into the soil, and the remainder flows down 
the surface with a velocity varying with the slope, some- 
times washing the soil into small furrows and gullies. 
Hence, the burning of this humus decreases the storage of 
water in the soil and causes the more rapid accumulation 
of this water in the brooks, and results in floods in the 
larger streams below. 

Following in the wake of the forest fire in this connec-o„°J^oun^"ff 
tion is the farmer who is continually clearing the moun- ^g°Pfj|j'^'^go,^ Yn 
tain slopes for agricultural purposes. Instead of trying streams. 
to improve his soil in the valle}' and on the adjacent slopes 
he has for 3'eai's followed the policy of clearing additional 
patches on the mountain side as rapidly as others are 
worn out and abandoned. Each one of these hillside fields 
must be abandoned in from thi-ee to five years, as their 
productiveness is short lived. After the trees have been 
girdled and the underbrush has been desti'oyed, such a field 
may be planted in corn for one or two years, then in grain 
for a year, and one or two years in grass. Then it may be 
pastured for a year or two until with increased barrenness 
the grass gives place to weeds and the weeds to gullies. 
(See PI. XLIX.) 

Within two or three vears after these mountain-side . ^°'^^i SiL¥" 

mgs and liooas. 

fields have been cleared the soil loses its color, changing 
from dark gray or black to red. as the organic matter dis- 
appears. Meanwhile it is losing more and more its porous 



134 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

nature, and hence its capacity for absorbing water; and 
the rains being unable to soak into it wash it away. 

Thus, the lumberman, the forest fire, and the farmer 
cooperate in the work of forest destruction and the 
consequent disturbance of the regularitj^ of the flow of 
the streams. This increases the floods which destroj^ the 
valley lands below, and as the irregularity of their flow 
increases the streams lose their value for water powers 
during the dry season, and during the season of rain the 
floods wash awa}^ the farming lands in the valleys and 
carry destruction along their courses across the lowlands. 
As the rains wash awa}' the cleared fields on the moun- 
tain slopes and the farming lands in the valleys, these soils 
on their way toward the sea incidentally silt up the river 
channels and the harboi's. Hence, it is strictly true that 
in destroying forests these agencies are removing the soils, 
ruining the rivers, and destrojang the mountains them- 
selves; and along the lower courses of these streams thej^ 
are thus destroying agricultural and manufacturing inter- 
ests, and incidentally seriously afl'ecting important naviga- 
tion facilities. 
tJu'^'oFTheTe I" '^^'^ England and many of the Northern States the 
streams"a' forest "^'^®^"°^® ^^'^^^ ^""^ glacial deposits of sand and gravel, 
prob-em. spread out over the hills and valleys, serve as storehouses 

for the water and help matei'ially to preserve uniformity 
in the flow of the streams. In this respect thej^ cooperate 
largely with the forest cover in that region; and indeed 
they would accomplish much in that direction were the 
forest cover entirely removed. But in the southern Appa- 
lachian region there are no lakes and no glacial gravels 
and sands; the forest and the soil ax'e the factors upon 
which the solution of the problem of water storage de- 
pends. And that the problem i-esolves itself largelj^ into 
one of forest cover, with its undergrowth and humus, is 
seen by the fact that in the streams of the Piedmont Plain 
of the South Atlantic States the irregularit^v in flow, as 
observed for a number of 3'ears, has been almost directly 
proportional to the extent of forest clearings. Observa- 
tions and measurements of the southern Appalachian 
mountain streams made during the last few j^ears show 
that the same is true in that region. Hence, here the 
water problem is a forest problem. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 135 

STREAM FLOW IN THE REGION AND ITS MEASURE- 
MENT. 

The region is well watered, and from it several of the palacMa^egkfn 
largest rivers of the country receive their supplj'. (See ^^g^'®""^™"^''*^'^ 
PI. XII.) The chief rivers in the States of Virginia, North 
Carolina, South Cai'olina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, 
and West Virginia rise in these mountains. One of the 
principal tributaries of the Ohio and one of the largest 
feeders of the Mississippi head here also. So that this 
region may justly be considered one of the important 
watersheds of the United States. The Yadkin, Catawba, 
Broad, Saluda, and Chattooga iiow into the Atlantic. The 
Chattahoochet and the Coosa flow into the Gulf. New 
River flows to the north and enters the Kanawha, whose 
waters finally reach the Mississippi through the Ohio, 
while the Tennessee, with its large tributaries, the Hol- 
ston, the Nolichucky, and the French Broad, flow to the 
west through the State of Tennessee, finally entering the 
Mississippi. The Cheoah, the Nantahala, the Oconalufty, 
and the Tuckasegee, all large streams from 50 to 100 yards 
wide, join their waters to the Tennessee and flow in a 
narrow and rockj' gorge through the Great Smoky Moun- 
tains, while the Hiwassee unites with that river in the 
State of Tennessee beyond the mountains. 

An examination of the watersheds and a general inves- 
tigation of the streams in this mountain region were made 
by the United States Geological Survey during the sum- 
mer of 1900, the detailed results of which will be pub- 
lished in a series of Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers 
of the Surve3^ The following general facts are, however, 
presented for publication in this paper. 

During the hydrographic investigation of this region, uremente. ™^' 
extending through 1900 and 1901, measurements of flow 
were made on the larger streams and more than one thou- 
sand of their upper tributaries, and 51 gauging stations 
were established. At each station a gauge was perma- 
nently placed, upon which the height of the water surface 
was read and recorded daily by a local observer, and to 
which were referred the current-meter measurements, 
which were made about every sixty days, or oftener, as 
circumstances demanded or permitted. From these data 
a curve was platted, according to the method usually fol- 
lowed by the Survey. From this curve, the mean of the 
dail}' gauge readings being known, the approximate daily 
discharge has been calculated. The great diiiicult}^ en- 
countered at these stations was to obtain measurements 



136 



SOUTHEBN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



at the time of high water, for after a rain the livers rise 
rapidly and fall as quickly. Hence, unless the observer 
is on hand at the time, the high water passes before he 
can reach the point of measurement. A list of the gauging 
stations in this region from which data have been obtained 
is given in the following tables (see PI. XII): 

Special gauging stations cslahlislied by_the United States Geological Surveij 
on streams of the southern Appalachian region. 



Stream. 1 Station. 


Date estab- 
li-shed. 


New River OldtnwTi Va. 


Aug. 5, 1900 
.Inlv 29 1900 


South Fork of New River 

Nortli Forli of New River 


New River, N. C - 




Do. 


Siloam.N.C 


Aug. 3, 1900 










do 


Do. 


Linville River 


Bridgewater, N. C 


July 3,1900 
Xng. 30.1900 








Bluff Citv, Tenn 


Julv 17,1900 


Watauga River 


Butler, Tenn 


Aug. 11,1900 
Do. 




do 


Elli Ureek 




Aug. 5, 1900 
Sept. 20, 1900 
Sept. 4, 190O 


Nolichuckv River 


Chuck y Valley, Teun 

Newport, Teun 


Pigeon River 




Oldtown Tenn 


Do 









Besides the foregoing stations, which were established 
during the summer of 1900, the following gauging stations 
have been maintained for several j^ears upon streams flow- 
ing from the southern Appalachian Mountains: 

Regular gauging stations on streams floiving from the Southern Apjialarhian 

Mountains. 



River. 


Station. 


River. 


Station. 




Radford, Va. 
Fayette, W. Va. 


Oconee 

Chattahoochee ... 






Oakdale and West- 








point, Ga. 
Carters, Ga. 




Cartersville, and 


Coosawattee 




Holcomb Rock, Va. 


Oostanaula 


Resaca, Ga. 


Roanoke 


Roanoke, Va. 


Coosa 


Rome, Ga. 




Neal,N.C. 




Riverside, and Locks 


Dan 


South Boston, Va. 




Nos. 4 and 5, Ala. 




Randolph, Va, 
Salisbury and Nor- 
wood, N.C. 




Near Blueridge, Ga. 
Ranger, N. C. 


Yadkin 


Nottely... 




Hiwassee 


Charleston and Reli- 








ance, Tenn. 




RockhilI,S.C. 




Murphy, N.C. 


Broad (of theCaro- 


Alston, S.C. 


Tennessee 


Chattanooga and 


linas) . 






Knoxville.Teuu. 


Saluda 


Waterloo, S. C. 


Little Tennessee.. 


Judson,N.C. 


Tallulnh 


Tallulah Falls, Ga. 


Tuckasegee 


Bryson. N. C. 






French Broad 


Ashcvillc, S. C. 




Calho\ui Falls, S.C. 








Augusta, Ga. 







SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 137 

These stations cover every stream rising in the south- 
ern Appalachian Mountain area. 

Besides measurements at the foregoing- regular stations 
miscellaneous measurements were made in the watersheds 
of all of the larger rivers, on both the main streams and 
on their principal tributaries. The following large rivers 
were measured: Yadkin, Catawba, Broad (of the two 
Carolinas), Saluda. Tugaloo, Broad (of Georgia), Savan- 
nah, Oconee, Ocraulgee, Chattahoochee, Etowah, Coosawat- 
tee, Conasauga, Coosa, Tallapoosa, New, French Broad, 
Nolichucky, Holston, Watauga, Tennessee, Hiwassee, 
and Toccoa (or Okoee). A complete list of the measure- 
ments made, showing the discharge of the various rivers 
and their tributaries, has been published in Water Sup- 
ph^ and Irrigation Paper of the United States Geological 
Surve}' No. 49. 

In some respects the summer of 1900 was a peculiar one tionfiii'igo^o'and 
in the Appalachian region. Rain was abundant during ^^*'^- 
June, and the streams were moderately high during the 
earh' part of the sunimer, but later very little rain fell, 
and most of the rivers and their tributaries were at an 
extremeh^ low stage, as low as the^' have been for a num- 
ber of years. During the spring of 1901, however, the 
rivers were at a higher stage, and a number of high-water 
measurements were obtained, the results of which will be 
published in a later number of the Water-Supply Papers 
by the United States Geological Survey. With a view to 
making more than one measurement at the same place on 
each stream a bench mark was established at the time the 
first measurement was made, and the relative height of 
the water surface was noted at each succeeding gauging, so 
that in this waj^ the relation between the rise of the 
stream and the discharge could be ascertained. Examina- 
tions were also made for the watermarks at the time of 
previous floods, and when the yearly fluctuations of the 
streams could be obtained they also were noted. With the 
numerous gauge heights, and measurements of flow that 
have now been made, fairlj' complete data of the flow from 
the various drainage basins ai'e available. 

VALUE OF THESE MOUNTAIN STREAMS FOB WATER- 
POWER PURPOSES. 

The greater part of this region is occupied by gneissicj^^°j,?j'^'*^j,°j^j.^ 
rocks, having for the most part a characteristic northeast- po"';'' deveiop- 
to-southwest strike, the irregular rock layers dipping 



138 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

beneath the surface at varying but generally steep angles. 
The southern half of the region has along its western 
border an irregular belt of bedded slates, limestones, 
quartzites, and conglomerates. These rocks, which make 
up the great bulk of the surface, have a general north- 
easterly strike and a steep but varying dip; while near the 
eastern border there is another, but narrow and more irreg- 
ular, belt of rock of somewhat similar character, which 
follows approximately the general position of the Blue 
Kidge, and dips steeply southeastward. 

As stated above, the important streams rising in 
Virginia, the Carolinas, and Geoi-gia have their origin on 
the slopes of the Blue Ridge. Those rising on the eastern 
slope, such as the James, Roanoke, Yadkin, Catawba, 
Broad, Savannah, and Chattahoochee, flow generally toward 
the southeast, their head streams plunging down the moun- 
tain slopes manj^ hundreds of feet in short distances and 
soon reaching the gentle slope of the Piedmont Plain. (See 
Pis. XXVII and LXX.) The streams rising on the west- 
ern slopes of the Blue Ridge — the Watauga, Nolichuckj--, 
French Broad, Pigeon, Little Tennessee, Tuckasegee, and 
Hiwassee rivers — flow in the general characteristic north- 
westerW direction across the upturned ridges of the gneiss 
and more recent bedded rocks, with frequent falls, into the 
great valley of East Tennessee. (See PI. LXXI.) The 
Holston River, which flows along this vallej' from its upper 
end to its junction with the Tennessee system, forms an 
exception to the general direction of flow in this region, 
for its course lies toward the southwest; and the Coosa 
River, of Alabama, which has its headwaters on the south- 
eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, takes a similar direc- 
tion. The New River, also, which rises in the cross ranges 
connecting the Unakas and the Blue Ridge, flows toward 
the northwest into the Ohio. The elevation of the coun- 
try is so great and the descent of the stream is so rapid 
that the general course of the principal rivers has been but 
little modified by the geologic structure of the region, 
though they lie directlj' across the sti-ike of the rocks. 
The resulting conditions produce occasional falls and cas- 
cades in the streams (see PI. LXX VII); but the larger 
part of the courses of these streams consists of a succession 
of rapids (see PI. LXXIII), furnishing ample opportuni- 
ties for water-power development by the building of dams 
at intervals across the deep, narrow gorges. A number 
of the smaller tributary streams in North Carolina and in 



Senate Doc. No. 84. 



Plate LXXVIII. 




SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 139 

Virginia flow in either a northeaat or southwest direction 
along the strike of the rocks, and at places give rise to con- 
ditions favorable to water-power development. This is 
the case for the most part where a change in the direction 
of flow causes a change in the character of the rock in the 
stream bed. 

In northern Georgia different conditions seem prevalent; cal^^*(fef'^in ''the 
the general course of the stream is southeast or southwest, of°ife''souTherii 
and many shoals and cascades are to be found. Some of the Appaiachiaus,. 
cascades are of great height, and large water powers could 
be easilj' and cheaplj' developed. Notable among these are 
Tallulah Falls (see PI. XXVIII), where the descent is 335 
in about 4,000 feet: Duke's Creek Falls, Minnehaha Falls, 
and Annie Ruby Falls, whei'e the descent in each case is 
about 300 feet within a short distance. These are found 
on rather small streams, but illustrate the difference in the 
prevalent condition. 

As before stated, this part of northern Georgia embraces of^'^manutT" tur- 
the headwaters of three great drainage sj'stems, the Coosa, *"§; enterprises. 
the Chattahoochee, and the Savannah. At various points 
along their courses all of these streams possess magnificent 
water powers which present conditions favorable to devel- 
opment, and which at some future time will be made to 
supplj^ the varied and growing industries of the nearbj^ 
region with the power necessary for their continuance and 
growth. An}' impairment of these powers by diminution 
of the low-water flow of these streams will most assuredly 
work great injuiy in future years to the industrial welfare 
of the region. 

The States through which flow the streams rising in the 
region of the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve have 
for many years past been devoted mainly to agricultural 
pursuits; but within recent years a great awakening has 
come, and a tendency to manufacture the raw material at 
home has become manifest. Already the results are to be 
seen in the increased prosperity ot the region, resulting 
from the development of diversified industries. 

This tendency is growing with great rapidity, and while 
its beneficial effects will be felt most in the section where 
it has appeared, it can not fail to have a considerable influ- 
ence on the prosperity of the entire country, for pros- 
perity comes to those who produce sooner than to those 
who consume— to the seller who can supph' the commer- 
cial needs of the world, rather than those who feel the want. 



140 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

waTer'^-'p'owe'r Water powei' is universally I'ecognizecl as the cheapest 
preservation. power to be Secured for any species of manufacture, for 
when once the constructional development is at an end 
the attendant expenses become very small, since, through 
the operation of the laws of nature, the water flows with- 
out cost by day and night, while every ton of coal that 
passes in at the furnace door represents a certain expendi- 
ture, and in plants requiring great power this fuel cost 
may come to represent a large proportion of the cost of 
manufacture. 

In the past the chief advantage of steam power over 
water power was the mobility of the former, for steam 
could be generated wherever fuel could be obtained and 
mills could be built and where the transportation facilities 
were such as to insure the quick disposal of the finished 
product. By reason of the great improvements in elec- 
trical transmission of power, steam has lost its advantage, 
for water power can now be brought to a mill for dis- 
tances of many miles more cheaply than power can be 
obtained from coal at most points. The water powers, 
therefore, in the not far distant future, may become as 
valuable as coal mines, and as the local coal supplv becomes 
more costlj^ b}^ reason of deeper mining, the water powers 
will increase in value. 

This wealth should not be wantonly wasted. Its present 
value can be conserved and its future value increased by 
the preservation of the forests about the headwaters of the 
streams; and this preservation would seem desirable, 
therefore, if for no other reason than this, entirely apart 
from the wealth-producing capabilities of the forests 
themselves. 
Aggregate j^ jg impossible at this time to give an accurate statement 

water power in ^^^ ® ... 

southern Appa- gf tjjg total power available on all the streams rising in 

lacbian region. ^ o 

and flowing from this area, for the reason that the power 
on anj^ stream can not be determined accui'ately without 
a survey of the entire course of the stream with this object 
in view, and an}' discussion of this, based on the total 
fall from source to mouth and the average quantity of 
water carried by the stream, would be worse than mislead- 
ing; for the mere fact that there is on any stream a 
certain fall within a certain distance, over which flows a 
certain amount of water, does not mean that this localitj' 
constitutes an available water power. Theoretically the 
power is there, but practically it is nonexistent unless it 
can be developed and brought to use for a sum which is 



SOTTTHEEN APPALACHIAN KEGIOTST. 141 

not prohibitive. In other words, the availabilit}' of a 
water power depends entirely on the economic situation 
at the point considered, and every location must be viewed 
by itself in such detei-mination. 

It is, however, certain' that on all of these streams large 
amoviuts of power can be easily and cheaply developed 
when the demand for it is sufficient, for the average fall in 
the streams is great, and is noticeablj^ high at great num- 
bers of points, while the low-water flow is fairly large on 
account of the large annual rainfall and the storage efl'ect 
of the great forests. Furthermore, at manj' points, the 
conditions favorable for easy and cheap development are 
present; and on some of the sti'eams surve}'^ have been 
made which render approximate estimates easy. The more 
important of these are given below. 

In regard to the power actually utilized conditions are water power 

. .... -, Til available and 

more favorable, since such information can be readily ob-that already de- 

. . ' veloped on these 

tained by letter and inquiry from the owners and users streams. 
thereof, and such has been obtained and is 23resented below. 
The aggregate amount is very small, for the reasons that 
the entire region is largely agricultural in its pursuits and 
that manufacturing is only beginning. 

On the New (Kanawha) River and its tributaries, where, 
the available horsepower amounts to 60,000, the amount 
actuallj^ reported as used is 8,700 horsepower, of which 
amount 2,500 is used b}' a single plant recently built. 

On the James River the amount of available power is 
estimated as 45,000 horsepower, the amount actually used 
being 14,000. On the Roanoke River the available horse- 
power is estimated as about 50,000, of which not more than 
17,000 is actually in use. On the Yadkin River the availa- 
ble horsepower is estimated at 60,000, the amount actually 
used being about 2,500. The available power on the Ca- 
tawba River is estimated at 57,000 horsepower, the amount 
in use being 4,000 horsepower. On Broad and Saluda 
rivers the available power is e.stimated at 43,000 horse- 
power, the amount actually used being about 25,000 horse- 
power. The available power on the Savannah River is 
estimated to be about 77,000 horsepower, the amount used 
being about 1,000 horsepower. Near the fall line the city 
of Augusta has developed about 11,000 horsepower. 

On the Chattahoochee River. the available power is esti- 
mated by Mr. B. M. Hall to be 115,000 horsepower, the 



142 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

amount utilized being only about 10,000, while the availa- 
ble power on the Coosa River is about liO,000 horsepower, 
the amount in use being approximatelj' 13,000. 

On the Tennessee River, in Alabama, there is available 
100,000 horsepower, while on the tributaries of the Ten- 
nessee, in North Carolina and Tennessee, large amounts of 
power are available, as shown in the following paragraphs: 

On the Hiwassee and its tributaries the available power 
is estimated to be 75,000 horsepower, though the amount 
used is ver}^ small, the onlj^ users of power in the basin 
being some small plants. 

On the Little Tennessee sj'stem, including the Little 
Tennessee, Cheoah, Tuckasegee, Nantahala, Oconalufty, 
Tellico, Ellijay, and Little Pigeon rivers, the available 
power is 100,000, while the amount utilized is only 1,700. 

On the French Broad River and tributaries, rising in 
the southern Appalachian Mountains, the aggregate horse- 
power available is 50,000, while that used is about .3,500, 
though more than this will come into use in the near future 
when some developments which are now under way are 
con:pleted. Others in this basin are projected. 

In the Nolichucky Basin about 700 horsepower is in use, 
and 35,000 is available. 

On the Watauga the amount of power available is 20,000, 
while only a few small powers have been developed, aggre- 
gating 150 horsepower. In the Holston Basin 4,700 horse- 
power has been utilized, and 40,000 remain undeveloped. 

It would be entirely safe to estimate the available but 
undeveloped water power on the streams rising among the 
southern Appalachian Mountains as equivalent to not less 
than 1,067,000 horsepower, and the developed power is 
117,750. It would also be entirely correct to state that 
the future value, of these water powers, as indeed the 
future value of almost everything of value about these 
mountains, depends largely upon the future preservation 
of the forests. 



APPENDIX D. 



CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHEEl^ 
APPALAOHIAl«fS. 



ALFRED J. HENRY, 

Professor of Meteorology, 
TjTiitecl States "^kVeather Bxireau.. 



143 



LETTER OF TRAI^SMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Ageioui,ture, 

Weather Btjreau, 
Washington, D. 6'., Deceniber 12, 1901. 
Sir: I be^ to transmit herewith, in response to your request of a 
few daj's since, a short report on the climate of the southern Appa- 
lachian region, bj^ Prof. Alfred J. Henry of this Bureau. 

Tables of monthl}^ means and extremes of temperature, average rain- 
fall, and relative humidity accompany the paper. 
Ver}' respectfully, 

Willis L. Moore, 
Chief, United States Weather Bv/reoM. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, 1). C. 

*S. Doc. 84 10 145 



THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 



By Alfred J. Henry, 
Professor of Meteorology, Vnited States Weather Bureau. 



The climate of the southern Appalachian region pos- 
sesses some distinctive features, yet, on the whole, it is 
rather closely related to the great continental type of the 
middle latitudes. The pure type of continental climate — 
cold winters and hot summers — is found immediately to 
the westward in the Mississippi Valley and the plains region 
beyond, up to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The 
Atlantic slope has a climate somewhat less severe than 
that of the interior valleys, being oftener under the in- 
fluence of warm southerly winds in winter and cooling 
oceanic winds in summer. 

Intermediate in geographic position between the two^.ciimatic con- 

c> o r r ^ ditions vary with 

great areas just mentioned the southern Appalachian topographic tea- 
region naturally possesses a climate that partakes some- 
what of the main features of the climatic zones both to the 
westward and the eastward. Its distinctive features are 
lower temperature, both summer and winter, a drier 
atmosphere, greater rainfall and snowfall, higher wind 
velocity, and a greater intensity of the direct solar rays. 
These characteristics are due for the most part to the 
greater altitude of the Appalachian region as compared 
with surrounding levels. In a region of such extremely 
varied topography there must naturally be limited areas 
in which, owing to some natural advantage of position or 
exposure, the climatic conditions are materially different 
from those which obtain over the greater part of the 
region. Thus, for example, a mountain slope or a valley 
facing southward would naturalh^ possess a higher tem- 
perature and an immunitj' from frost not to be found in 
similar orographic conditions with a northern exposure. 

147 



148 SOUTHERN" APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Temperature. 'pjjg temperature of the region as a whole can not well 
be stated, since it is in general proportional to the altitude 
and is alwaj' s higher on southern than on northern slopes. 
Few meteorological observations of any character whatso- 
ever have been made except in the valleys and lower 
levels; indeed, with the exception of a few months' obser- 
vations on the summit of Mount Mitchell, no meteorologi- 
cal observations are available for the •l:,000-foot level and 
but two series of observations for the level between 3,000 
and 4,000 feet. 

The monthly means and extremes of temperature, to 
which reference will again be made, are given for a num- 
ber of stations in the tables which accompanj- this paper. 
weather tj'pts! The wind system of the southern Appalachians in spring, 
fall, and winter is large!}' conditioned by the movement in 
latitude of cvclonic and anticyclonic storms. In the sum- 
mer season these distui-bances mo\e across the country so 
far to the northward that their influence upon the weather 
of the southern Appalachians is almost inappreciable. The 
winds of summer will depend very largeh' upon the con- 
tour of the countrj^ being upward from the valleys along 
the mountain side during the day and downward at night, 
with a general westerl}^ drift over the mountain summits. 
In the more boisterous circulation of spring, late fall, and 
winter the winds are almost wholly controlled by the 
atmospheric disturbances passing eastward over the lake 
region or northeastward from the Gulf of Mexico. 

The movement of cyclonic storms eastward across the 
lake region produces a type of weatlier in the southern 
Appalachians which, for convenience, may be called the 
southwest type. The chief characteristics of this type are 
southwesterly winds with rising temperature and increas- 
ing cloudiness. The velocity of the wind generally in- 
creases for a day or so, and finally shifts to the west and 
northwest, with lower temperature, but not much rain. 
The southwest is the most common type experienced, and 
is often associated with long periods of fair, dry weather. 

Next in point of frequency to the southwest t_Ype is what 
may be called the west gulf tj'pe, from the fact that the 
weather with which it is associated is produced by storms 
which approach from the west Gulf States. In this type 
fresh to brisk southeast to east winds are experienced with 
generally heavy rain throughout the entire region. As 
soon as the stoi'm passes the winds shift to a westerly 



SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN" REGION. 149 

quarter, with markedly cooler weather and frequently 
snow on the higher summits in winter. 

A third type of weather may be mentioned, viz, a type 
produced by storms which move from the Gulf of Mexico 
or the West Indies northeastward along the Atlantic 
coast. In this type strong northeast to north winds pre- 
vail. The rainfall, especiallj' in the warm season, is often 
torrential, and in spring and autumn may continue for 
several days in succession. In winter such storms are at- 
tended by heavy snow and followed by verj^ cold weather. 

In 1873 a party of Signal Service observers spent the c,i^o*'n|''at ugh 
month.s of May, June, July, and August on the summit of ^'^■^®'^- 
Mount Mitchell. North Carolina, carefully observing the 
temperature, rainfall, barometric pressui'e, and other fea- 
tures of the weather. 

The highest temperature observed on the summit of the 
mountain during the four months was 72° in July; the 
lowest, il^ in June. The monthly mean temperatures for 
the four months were as follows: May, 49.3°; June, 54.1°; 
July, 56.4°, and August, 55.3°. The rainfall was very 
heavy, 36.8 inches being recorded while the observers were 
on the summit. Rain fell on 21 days in May, 22 in June, 
15 in July, and 21 in August. There was a great abundance 
of foggy and cloudy weather, the fog and clouds being 
f req uently below the summit. The prevailing winds were 
from a westerly quarter. 

A summary of meteorological observations in the south- 
ern Appalachian region appears in the tables which accom- 
pany this paper. The highest point at which observations 
have been made is at Highlands, N. C, elevation 3,817 feet. 
The mean temperature of summer at that station is 65.7°, 
of winter, 35.4°. The extremes reached during a period of 
eight years, 1893-1900, were 19° below zero in February, 
1899, and 86° above zero in June, 1895. The temperature 
has not reached 90° at that station or at Linville, N. C, the 
next highest station, altitude 3,800 feet, during the period 
of observations. 

The precipitation on the southern slopes of the Blue Rainfall. 
Ridge and connecting spurs is the heaviest in the United 
States with the exception of the north Pacific coast. It 
ranges from about 60 inches in northern Georgia to 70 
inches in western North Carolina, whence it diminishes 
northward, falling as low as 40 inches in the southwestern 
part of Virginia and to almost that figure locally in sev- 
eral portions of the intermediate region. The rainfall of 



150 SOUTHERN- APPALACHIAN REGION. 

the western slope of the Appalachians in considerably less 
than on the summits and along the eastern and southern 
flanks of the mountains, though it generally averages from 
40 to 50 inches annually on the lower levels. 

As previously stated, the rainfall in the southern Ap- 
palachian region is occasionally torrential in character. 
The mountain ranges of western North Carolina and 
northern Georgia are so situated with respect to the rain- 
bearing winds as to greatly facilitate the rapid condensa- 
tion of moisture, whether borne by the winds fi'om the 
Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. The indraft of 
warm, moist air from these great storehouses of moisture 
and the subsequent cooling as it is forced up the mountain 
sides give downpours of rain seldom experienced in the 
adjacent lowlands. On September 22, 1898, 7.57 inches 
of rain fell within 24 hours at Linville, 6 inches at Lenoir, 
8.30 inches at Paterson, 6.75 inches at Marion, and 5.75 
inches at Flat Rock. During August, 1901, the total 
rainfall for the month at Flat Rock was 30 inches; at 
Highlands, 30 inches; at Hendersonville, 26 inches; at 
Horse Cove, 26 inches; at Paterson, 24 inches, and at 
Marion, 21 inches. The precipitation for the j^ear 1898 
in western North Carolina at Highlands was 105.25 inches; 
at Horse Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.89 inches, and 
Linville, 71.05 inches. These heavy downpours naturally 
cause destructive floods in the streams whose headwaters 
penetrate the mountain region. The severity of the floods 
is in a large measure mitigated by the fact that a large 
proportion of the rainfall is conserved by the forest cover- 
ing, which abounds on the greater part of the area, and is 
thus prevented from reaching the streams quickly and in 
great volume, as would be the case were the mountain 
sides and the summits bare. It is a mistake to suppose 
the forests pei' se tend to increase precipitation. The 
precipitation would be equallj^ heavy, forest or no forest. 
In the latter case it would run off more quickly and the 
regimen of the streams would be much more irregular 
than in the case of a forested area. 

Not much can be said of the relative humidity of the 
higher elevations, since no observations have been made. 
Along the western edge of the Piedmont Plateau the air 
is considerably drier than on the coastal plain. Tables of 
monthly mean relative humidity for Atlanta, Ga., Char- 
lotte and Asheville, N. C, and Chattanooga and Knoxville, 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



151 



Tenn., accompany this report, and there have been added, 
for the sake of comparison, similar data for Savannah, 
Wilmington, and Raleigh on the east, Montgomery on 
the south, and Memphis, Nashville, and Cincinnati on the 
west. The data for Asheville are not directly comparable 
with those of the remaining stations, since the Asheville 
observations were made three times daily, viz, at 7 a. m., 
2 and 9 p. m., whereas observations at the remaining 
stations were made but twice daily, viz, at 8 a. m. and 
8 p. m. The omission of an observation during the driest 
part of the day tends to give mean values somewhat above 
the true figures. Nevertheless, the observations at Ashe- 
ville confirm the local belief that the relative humidity of 
the mountain region is less than that of lower levels. 

Table 1. — Normal monthly mean temperature {in degrees Fahrenheit, ) compiled in the 
Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture, from observations extending 
over a series of years. 



stations. 



Si 



a 
s 

a. 


2 

o 
O 


s 
a 


a 


o 


o 


o 


o 


69.1 


57.2 


48.2 


41.2 


69.0 


56.7 


48.4 


41.9 


69.9 


60.9 


48.1 


39.5 


64.9 


53.2 


45.2 


38.9 


60.2 


51.0 


42.2 


36.0 


69.7 


47.3 


41.4 


34.8 


67.7 


55.4 


45.4 


36.0 


70.7 


60.5 


49.9 


43.6 


69.1 


56.9 


46.5 


39.5 


69.3 


57.6 


46.6 


39.9 


68.2 


55.9 


46.2 


38.2 


66.2 


53.8 


43.5 


34.5 


69.0 


57.1 


46.3 


39.3 


65.7 


63.8 


43.7 


35.5 



Georgia: 

Clayton 

Diamond 

North Carolina: 

Abshers » 

Asheville 

Highlands 

Linville 

Tennessee: 

Bristol 

Chattanooga . . 

Greeneville... 

Knoxville 

Rogersville . . . 
Virginia: 

Bigstone Gap . 

Lynchburg ... 

Wytheville ... 



Feel. 

2,100 

2,020 



2,250 
3,817 
3,800 

1,757 
762 
1,581 
1,004 
1,212 

1,966 

681 

2,370 



38.0 



37,8 
33.5 
31.0 

33.9 
41.0 
36.6 
37.7 
35.8 

32.7 

36. 

31.5 



39.1 
41,4 

35.8 
39.8 
36.6 
31.0 

33.5 
45.5 
40.1 
42.3 
39.3 

33.8 
40.0 
33.2 



49. 
47.6 

47.2 
45.7 
41.6 
40.5 

45.3 
50.5 
46.3 
47.6 
45.9 

45.6 
45.2 
43.3 



56.5 
.57.5 

53.7 
54.8 
50.6 
46.7 

54.1 
60.9 
57.0 
58.2 
56.5 

53.5 
55.9 
52.5 



66.6 
65.2 

65.2 
62.6 
57.5 
57.6 

64.6 
67.7 
64.6 
66.2 
64.3 

62.5 
66.0 
63.2 



73.1 
72.3 

73.2 
69.6 
64.7 
62.4 

71.7 
75.2 
72.2 
73.6 
71.9 

70.1 
74.2 
69.0 



74.4 74.8 
74.0' 73.1 






76.7 


75.9 


72.0 


70.6 


67.1 


65.4 


66.1 


64.9 


73.8 


72.2 


77.8 


75.9 


74.7 


73.3 


76.4 


74.8 


74.4 


78.5 


72.0 


71.2 


77.6 


75.3 


72.0 


71.0 



■57.5 
57.1 

57.1 
54.6 
50.5 
48.6 



.56.4 
57.2 
6.5.8 

53.3 
56.9 
62.9 



"Record for 4 years and 6 months only. 



152 



SOUTKEEN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 



Table 2. — Highest temperatures observed daring the eight years 1S93 to 1900, at the points 
named ;°- compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture. 



Stations. 



Jan. 



Feb. 



Mar. 



Apr. 


May. 


o 


o 


91 


94 


91 


94 


89 


93 


90 


91 


81 


84 


79 


83 



June, 



July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


o 




o 





- 96 


96 


93 


89 


98 


94 


94 


86 


99 


100 


98 


92 


94 


95 


95 


87 


85 


85 


84 


77 


84 


85 


82 


74 


96 


94 


92 


86 


101 


100 


98 


91 


96 


97 


96 


89 


100 


100 


99 


94 


93 


96 


95 


88 


97 


95 


96 


88 


102 


100 


99 


92 


97 


97 


99 


86 



Nov. Dec. 



Georgia: 

Clayton 

Diamond . . . 
North Carolina: 

Abshers'5 

Aslieville^" .. 

Highlands . . 

Linville 

Tennessee: 

Bristol d 

Chattanooga 

Greeneville . 

Knoxville . . 

Rogersville . 
Virginia: 

BigstoneGap 

Lynchburg. 

VVytheville.. 



88 


89 


90 


93 


88 


91 


90 


94 


90 


89 


90 


92 


95 


97 


87 


91 



95 
99 
96 

96 
98 
92 



69 

67 

72 
68 
60 
59 



77 66 

79 73 
77 68 
81 75 
74 67 

77 68 

81 73 

80 70 



« From 1893 to 1900, inolu.sive, except Chattanooga from 1879 to 1900, Knoxville from 1871 to 1900, and 
Lynchburg from 1873 to 1900, inclusive. 
'Record from April, 1897, to September, 1901, inclusive. 
= From May, 1898 to 1900, inclusive, record from Biltmore, N. C. 
''Record from 1894 to 1900, inclusive. 



Table .3. — Lowest temperatures observed during the eight years 1893 to 1900, at the points 
named; '^ compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture. 

[Minus signs indicate temperatures below zero F.] 



Georgia; 

Clayton 

Diamond 

North Carolina; 

Alishers*^ 

Ashevillec .. 

Highlands .. 

Linville 

Tennessee; 

Bristol <i 

Chattanooga . 

Greeneville . . 

Knoxville . . . 

Rogersville .. 
Virginia; 

Bigstone Gap 

Lynchburg .. 

Wytheville .. 



Jan. 



1 

- 6 

4 

- 9 
-14 
-15 



-20 
-16 
-13 

-26 

- 6 

- 5 



Feb. 



- 5 
-12 



-10 
-19 
-16 

-20 
-10 
-14 
-10 
-17 

-18 
- 3 



Mar. 



Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


o 


o 


o 


o 


23 


31 


42 


50 


25 


32 


47 


46 


20 


34 


46 


44 


22 


30 


45 


45 


15 


27 


35 


48 


15 


29 


37 


40 


20 


30 


43 


60 


25 


40 


39 


66 


21 


31 


35 


51 


24 


34 


43 


52 


24 


34 


46 


52 


21 


26 


33 


40 


25 


34 


45 


53 


19 


32 


41 


46 



Aug. 



Sept. 



28 



Oct. 



24 
27 

26 
22 
20 
18 

23 
27 
26 
25 



Nov. 



Dec. 



-10 

- 5 

-11 
3 

^ 4 

- 5 

- 1 

- 5 

- 6 

- 5 



•From 1893 to 1900, inclusive, except Chattanooga from 1879 to 1900, Knoxville from 1871 to 1900, and 
Lynchburg from 1873 to 1900. inclusive. 
''Record from April, 1897, to September, 1901, inclusive. 
"From May, 1898 to 1900, inclusive, record from Biltmore, N. C. 
■i Record from 1894 to 1900, inclusive. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



153 



Table 4. — Mean monthly and annual precipitation, in inches a7id hundredths; compiled in 
the Weather Bureau, United. /States DeparUnent of Agricidture, from all available records 
from the beginning of observations to December, 1900. 



Stations, 



Georgia: 

Claj-ton 

Diamond 

North Carolina: 

Abshers "^ 

Asheville 

Highlands 

LinviUe 

Murphy 

Tennessee: 

Bristol 

Chattanooga . . . 

Greeneville 

Knoxville 

Kogersville 

Virginia: 

Bigstone Gap... 

Lynchburg 

WytheviUe 



Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


7.05 


5.93 


6.79 


5.26 


6.78 


4.21 


5.24 


5.06 


3.50 


4.19 


6.34 


4.99 


3.17 


3.48 


3.86 


3.20 


0.53 


8.19 


5.91 


6.25 


4.08 


4.08 


4.45 


5.26 


6.19 


6.44 


6.46 


5.00 


2.96 


3.62 


5.80 


2.19 


6.19 


5.32 


5.95 


4.52 


3.66 


4.30 


5.16 


3.36 


5.53 


5.32 


5.37 


4.95 


3.86 


4.92 


5.28 


3.54 


3.93 


5.06 


7.06 


3.17 


3.9.') 


3.53 


3.67 


3.36 


2.16 


3.54 


2.85 


2.42 



May. 



Juue. 



3.37 
4.14 



3.40 
4.46 



4.76 ; 6.45 
3.70 ' 3.99 
4.45 , 5.53 
4.86 
5.51 



4.49 
4.76 
4.10 



4.49 


3. .51 


3.14 


3.89 


4.11 


3.92 


3.94 


5.37 


3.91 


3.70 



3.67 
3.46 
4.30 



Jwly. 



8.79 
6.50 

5.92 
5.05 
6.21 
8.29 
6.53 

5.76 
4.22 
4.90 
4.32 
4.84 

7.11 
3.90 
4.76 



Aug. 



7.10 
4.85 

7.07 
4.56 
6.17 
3.76 
5.40 

4/47 
3.80 
4.16 
4.07 
3.88 

4.85 
4.01 
4.42 



Sept. 



5.08 
3.31 

5.22 
2.83 
6.02 
4.59 
3.18 

2.68 
3.70 
2.32 
2.70 
2.22 

2.34 
3.81 
3.54 



Oct. 



4.45 
2.18 

6.36 
2.62 
4.78 
6.69 
2.80 

1.97 
2.71 
2.59 
2.79 
2.72 

2.65 
3.26 
3.10 



Nov. 



4.22 
4.68 

3.11 
2.99 
4.94 
5.68 
4.58 

2.41 
3.79 
2.47 
3.81 
3.01 

2.65 
2.94 
1.67 



Dec. 



4.58 
5.00 

3.41 
2.93 
6.32 
5.60 
4.96 



4.32 
2.66 
4.11 
?.68 

3.24 
3.05 
2.42 



An- 
nual. 



66.02 
56.41 

61.32 
42.38 
71.30 
61.73 
60.56 

40.75 
52.90 
44.45 
50.99 
45.72 

51.10 
42.85 



* Record for 4 years and 6 months only. 

Table 5. — Monthly mean relative humidity; compiled in the Weather Bareini, United 
Stales Department of Agriculture. 



Station.'i. 


>• 

5 


I.. 




< 




•-I 


3 


be 

< 


a 

CO 


o 

8 


XI 

a 

> 
o 




■3 

3 
C 
C 
< 


si 




p. a. 


P.d. 


F.ci. 


P.ct. 


p.ct. 


P.d. 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


p.ct. 


P.ct. 


p.ct. 


Per cent. 


rears. 


Atlanta, Ga 


76.4 


73.9 


68.6 


62.4 


65.8 


71.1 


76.3 


77.9 


75.2 


68.4 


73.3 


75.6 


72.1 


9 


Charlotte, N. C 


72.3 


72.4 


68.1 


62.9 


67.1 


72.0 


75.8 


78.2 


77.7 


69.8 


72.0 


72.6 


71.7 


9 


Chattanooga, Tenn . 


78.2 


73.8 


69.0 


65.6 


72.8 


75.4 


76.6 


78.1 


78.8 


73.1 


73.0 


75.9 


74.2 


9 


Knoxville, Tenn 


76.0 


70.9 


68.0 


62 7 


71.4 


74.3 


77.3 


78.9 


76.9 


72.6 


73.3 


75.3 


73.1 


9 


Asheville, N.C 


63.7 


65.4 


63.6 


59.2 


65.6 


67.1 


72.9 


73.0 


73.5 


66.3 


62.5 


65.0 


66.5 


9 


Savannah, Ga 


77.2 


78.3 


74.1 


74.4 


74.3 


78.6 


81.3 


83.4 


84.1 


78.2 


80.6 


80.0 


78.7 


9 


Wilmington, N. C... 


79.1 


80.1 


78.7 


76.7 


78.9 


81.8 


84.0 


84.6 


83.2 


79.3 


80.7 


78.6 


80.5 


9 


Raleigh, N.C 


74.4 


74.3 


70.1 


66.9 


71.9 


73.3 


77.6 


80.4 


79.0 


73.6 


76.1 


72.9 


74.2 


9 


Montgomery, Ala... 


75.3 


74.7 


68.8 


64.8 


66.8 


70.1 


76.0 


78.1 


74.0 


69.0 


72.7 


75.6 


72.2 


9 


Memphis, Teuu 


75.9 


73.2 


70.7 


66.3 


69.8 


72.9 


75.3 


75.3 


75.0 


70.6 


74.0 


75.6 


72.9 


9 


Nashville, Tenn 


76.6 


74.2 


68.4 


63.7 


67.6 


70.7 


71.9 


72.3 


74.0 


68.7 


72.8 


74.6 


71.3 


9 


Cincinnati, Ohio.... 


76.7 


74.0 


68.8 


61.0 


63.6 


64.6 


64.6 


65.3 


69.1 


68.8 


73.1 


74.7 


68.7 


9 



^PPEI^DIX E. 



THE PRESEITT STATUS OF THE MOVEMEI^T 

FOR THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE 

HT THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN'S. 

MEMORIALS AND RESOLUTIONS FAVORING THE PROPOSED APPALA- 
CHIAN FOREST RESERVE. 

Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club. 
Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association. 
Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement 

of Science. 
Resolution of the American Forestry Association. 
Resolution of the National Board of Trade. 
Resolutions passed by other boards of trade. 

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE ON 
THE FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION, JAN- 
UARY 1, 1901. 

REPORT ON THE CREATION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FOR- 
EST RESERVE BY THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESER- 
VATIONS AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME, FEBRUARY 12, 1901. , 

RESOLUTIONS AND ACTS BY THE LEGISLATORS OF STATES WHOSE 
TERRITORY EXTENDS INTO THE REGION OF THE PROPOSED 
FOREST RESERVE. 
Virginia. 
North Carolina. 
Tennessee. 
South Carolina. 
Georgia. 

EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS. 



155 



THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR THE PROPOSED 
FOREST RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. 



The necessit}' for the preservation of the forests in the Southern 
Appalacliian region in order to prevent the washing away of the moun- 
tain lands and the destruction of the mountains themselves has for 
many years been advocated by the geologists worlting in that region. 
Their position in this has met with the hearty approval of the forestry 
experts and even the lumbermen who have gone into that region. The 
growing prominence and recognized suitabilitj' of nuich of this region as 
a health and pleasure resort has added this element also to the movement 
for the preservation of these forests and rivers. The increasing violence 
and destructiveness of the floods during the past few years, and the gen- 
eral recognition of the fact that the continued clearing of these moun- 
tain slopes would soon result in the absolute ruin of all the interests 
of this region and of the adjacent lowlands in the several States — this 
has combined and strengthened this movement in the countiy at large, 
and has brought it to its present position before Congress. 

On November 22, 1899, the Appalachian National Park Association 
was organized at Asheville, N. C, with a large membership, including 
citizens from Northern, Southern, and Western States. On January 
2, 1900, memorials from this Appalachian National Park Association 
and the Appalachian Mountain Club of New England were presented 
to Congress, asking that measures be taken looking to the preservation 
of the Southern Appalachian forests. In response to these memorials, 
supported by the unanimously favorable press of the countiy, Congress 
incorporated in the bill carrying the appropriation for the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, a pro- 
vision that a " sum not to exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the 
Secretary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the conditions of 
the Southern Appalachian mountain region of Western North Carolina 
and adjacent States.-' 

The United States Geological Survey of the Department of the 
interior cooperated with the Department of Agriculture in this investi- 
gation so as to have it include a study of the geology and topography 
and rivers of the region. 

In Januaiy, 1901, the Secretarj'^ of Agriculture submitted a short 
preliminary report" setting forth the result of these investigations up 

"See pp. 166-168. 

157 



158 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 

to that time. This report was transmitted to Congress by President 
McKinley in a brief commendatory message on Januarj' 16, 1901. 

On January 10, 1901, a bill was introduced in the Senate by Mr. 
Pritchard, of North Carolina, which provided an appropriation of 
$5,000,000, to be expended under the Secretary of Agriculture in the 
purchase of not less than 2,000,000 acres of mountain lands in the States 
of Vii'ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and 
Alabama. This bill was favorabl}' reported to the Senate bj^ the Com- 
mittee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, February 
12, 1901.*^ 

This movement has from its beginning received the active support 
of both the general and the technical press of the country, and it may 
be said that this agency has done more than all othei's to awaken the 
American people to the importance of preserving the remnants of our 
forests before it is too late, and of educating them to a knowledge of 
the fact that these forests are for this generation to legitimately use, 
but not to destroy. 

The list of papers and periodical publications that have contained 
articles favoring the proposed Appalachian forest reserve is too long 
to be enumerated here, but it may not be improper to mention espe- 
cially two such articles which have recentlj' appeared, viz, one by 
Prof. W JMcGee, of Washington, D. C, in the World's Work for 
November, 1901, and another by Prof. N. S. Shaler, in the North 
American Review for December, 1901. On page 180 will be found 
brief extracts relative to the proposed forest reserve from a few papers 
and magazines. 

The following papers, arranged somewhat in the order of their 
adoption, are here reproduced so as to make them more accessible to 
those who may have occasion to refer to them : 

BIEMORIAI, OF THE APPAIiACHIAN MOUNTAIN CLUB. 

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
America: 

The petition of the Appalachian Mountain Club respectfully shows. 

That your petitioner is an organization of about 1,200 members, com- 
posed principall}' of residents of Boston, Mass., and New England, 
with scattering members throughout the Union, organized in January, 
1876, and reorganized and chartered as a corporation by the Common- 
wealth of Massachusetts in April, 1878. 

That its object is to bring together for cooperation all those inter- 
ested in the mountains of New England and adjacent regions. * * * 
To combine the energies of all those who are interested in eflorts not 
only to preserve the present beauty and attractiveness of our mountain 
resorts — and in particular their forests — but also to render them more 



"Seep. 168. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 159 

attractive hv building paths, camps, and other conveniences, construct- 
ing and publishing accurate maps, and bj- collecting all available infor- 
mation concerning the mountain regions. 

* * * In short, the club may be considered the repi'esentative in 
this part of the country of the interests of all lovers of the mountains, 
in addition to which it has made such substantial contributions to 
various departments of geography as to gain recognition as a repre- 
sentative of general geographical science. 

It having come to the knowledge of this club that there is now on 
foot a movement for the establishment of a national forest and moun- 
tain preserve in the southern Alleghenies, to be known as the National 
Appalachian Park; and further, that there is now before the Congress 
a petition from an organization known as the Appalachian National 
Park Association, "praying for such action as will result in causing to 
be forthwith made such examination and surveys as may be necessary 
to determine the best possible location and the proper area for a 
national park in the southern Appalachian region, to the end that 
upon the coming in of the report of the forester, or of such reports 
as the Congress may desire, appropriate steps may be taken to acquire 
the title to the land to be comprised within the limits of the park; or 
that the Congress may take such other action as it may deem proper." 

Your petitioners therefore state that they believe the movement is 
inaugurated at a most opportune time, being well aware of the increased 
difScultj' that will attend the securing of suitable land for this pur- 
pose at a later date, when land values increase and timber and land 
interests combine against such a movement; that they are deeply inter- 
ested in this movement, which they believe, if carried out, will result 
in untold health and recreation for future generations, and heartily 
concur in the above-mentioned petition; and thej' respectfully praj' 
that the said petition of the Appalachian National Park Association 
may receive favorable consideration with the Congress. 
Albion A. Perry, President. 
RosEWELL B. Lawrence, Becoi'ding Secretary. 
John Ritchie, Jr., Corresjjondiny Secretary. 



MEMORIAL FROM THE APPALACHIAN NATIONAL PARK 
ASSOCIATION. 

To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
America: 

The petition of the Appalachian National Park Association respect- 
fulh" shows: 

That your petitioner is an organization composed of citizens from 
many States in the Union, and was formed for the purpose of bringing 



160 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

to the attention of the Congress of the United States the desirability 
of establishing a national park at some place in the southern Appa- 
lachian region. 

That the facts which led to the organization of your petitioner, and 
which are presented as reasons for the establishment of such a national 
park, are as follows: 

KARE NATURAL BEAUTY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

In western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee (or, more definitely, 
in the heart of the Great Smoky Mountains, the Balsam Mountains, 
and the Black and Craggy Mountains) is found not only the culmina- 
tion of the Appalachian system, but the most beautiful as well as the 
highest mountains east of the lofty western ranges. Forty-three 
mountains of 6,000 feet and upward in altitude, as well as a great 
number of inferior height, all clothed with virgin forests and inter- 
sected bjr deep valleys abounding in brooks, rivers, and waterfalls, 
combine to make this a i-egion of unsurpassed attractiveness. 

Standing upon the summit of one of these sublime heights the eye 
often seeks in vain for the bare mountain side — the evidence of the 
devastating ax — and before one stretches out a view magnificently 
beautiful. 

If the national parks already established have been chosen for their 
unusual natural beaut}', here is a national park conspicuously fine, 
awaiting oflicial recognition as an addition to the number. 

SUPERB FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN SYSTEM. 

No other portion of our country displays a richness of sylva equal 
to that found in the high mountains of the Southern Appalachian region 
in the variety of its hard woods and conifers. Professor Giw, the 
eminent botanist, is authority for the statement that he encountered a 
greater number of indigenous trees in a trip of 30 miles through 
western North Carolina than can be observed in a trip from Turkey 
to England, through Europe, or from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky 
Mountain plateau. Here is the home of the rhododendron and the 
kalmia; here is the meeting place of the mountain fiora of the North 
and of the South, and the only place where distinctive Southern moun- 
tain trees may be found side bj- side with those of the North. Here, 
too, are found trees of from 5 to 7 feet, and even more, in diameter, 
which tower to a height of 140 feet, and, occasionally, much higher, 
and these patriarchal trees, though innumerable, are but the greatest 
in a dense forest composed of manj- other large, beautiful, and valuable 
varieties. In fine, here is the largest area of virgin forest in the South 
Atlantic region, and the finest example of mixed forest (by which is 
meant a forest of deciduous and evergreen trees) in America. 



SOUTHERN APPAL ACHIAN EEGION. 161 

There is but one such forest in America, and neg'lect of the oppor- 
tunitj' now presented of saving- it may work irretrievable loss. The 
forest once destroj^ed can not be restored. Reforestation is a slow 
process; it is for subsequent generations. The experience of the old 
countries in this matter, stands as a warning-. The increasing scarcity 
of timber is causing the large areas of forest in this part of our country 
to be rapidly acquired by those whose one thought will be immediate 
returns from a system of himbering utterly reckless and ruinous from 
any other point of view, and in a few years this forest will be a thing 
of the past. 

The National Government, and it alone, can prevent this destruction, 
and, by the application of the methods of scientific forestry, preserve 
the forest as a heritage and blessing to unborn generations. 

NECESSITY OF PRESERVING THE HEADWATERS OF MANY RIVERS RISING 

IN THESE MOUNTAINS. 

At this late date the calamities of flood and drought resulting- from 
the wanton destruction of forests are well known. The forest acts as 
a storehouse of moisture for the dry season, and tends to prevent 
floods. 

Many rivers rise in these mountains, and the same causes which will 
destroy the forests will work irreparable injuiy to the sources of the 
water supply. 

It is the duty of the National Government, as the guardian of the 
national interests, not the least among which are the rivers, to protect 
their sources and the water supply of the country. 

HEALTHFULNESS OF THE REGION. 

It is a well-recognized fact that the jjlateau lying between the Great 
Smoky Mountains and the Blue Ridge is one of the most deservedly 
popular health resorts of the world. The geographical location and 
the geological formation are peculiarly adapted to the production of 
those conditions which make for health in general. 

Malaria is unknown. It rivals Arizona as a sanitarium for those 
sutt'ering from pulmonary troubles. No better place could be found 
for the establishment of a sanitarium for the soldiers and sailors of 
our country. 

CLIMATE IS FINE THE WHOLE YEAR. 

By reason of its considerable altitude its summer climate is more 
agreeable than that of regions farther north. Those living in the 
South, but in regions of less altitude, and in increasing numbers others 
from the North and West, are learning to appreciate the advantages 

*S. Doc. 84 11 



162 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

of its summer climate. For manj^ years to those wishing to escape the 
rigors of a Northern winter this plateau has been a place of favorite 
resort. It has one of the best all-year climates in the world. 

The existing national parks can only be visited in summer ; snow 
and ice bar the way at all other times. If a national park were created 
in this favored mountain region it could be visited and enjoyed at all 
seasons of the year. 

LOCATION IS CENTRAL. 

This part of the Appalachian Range is but twent3r-four hours from 
New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Toledo, and the Gulf States. It is, 
therefore, within easy reach of millions of people, and a park there 
could be in fact, as in name, a national park. 

EASTERN STATES ARE ENTITLED TO A NATIONAL PARK. 

There is no national park of the character of the one suggested east 
of the Yellowstone, which is considerably more than 2,000 miles from 
the Altantic coast, nor is there even a forest reserve east of western 
Dakota, which is but a few hundred miles nearer. 

The Chickamauga battlefield, though called, it is believed, a "national 
park," possesses none of the characteristics of such a park as is now 
under consideration, and was created because of the historical interest 
investing its locality and is of ver}- limited area. 

PARK WOULD PAT AS A FOREST RESERVE. 

It is confident]}' asserted that no forest reserve of the country, with 
possiblj' one exception, would yield a larger return to the Government. 

The forests are very dense: the timber of valuable species, such as 
tulip (poplar), oa;k, chesthiit, hemlock, and pine, and of great size. The 
undergrowth is still to a large extent uninjured \.)y fire, and the forest, 
when made accessible by Government roads and managed in a scientific 
manner, would yield an immediate, a constant, and a comparatively 
large revenue. 

The Government is now about to institute methods of scientific for- 
estry. No better place in the United States can be found for the insti- 
tution on a governmental scale of forestry operations, and because of 
the fine climate, summer and winter alike, it would be the only forest 
reserve of the country where such operations could be carried on unin- 
terruptedly throughout the year. 

The forests and the climate, both incomparable, ordain this as the 
place for the commencement of forestry opei'ations, and, perhaps, as 
the location eventually of a national school of forestry. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 163 

THE TITLE TO THE LAND CAN BE EASILY ACQUIRED. 

A site for the park can easih^ be chosen where the land is held in 
large areas and where the settlers are few. The land now sells for 
about $2 an acre, so that a comparatively large park could be secured 
at what would be greatl}^ less than its value to the nation. 

SUGGESTIONS REGARDING LOCATION OF PARK. ^ 

That the foregoing are the considerations which your petitioner 
deems of the most imperative nature and which it respectfully suggests 
should have the early attention of the Congress. 

That your petitioner does not consider that it would be proper for 
it to suggest in anything more than a general way what should be the 
area or the boundary lines of a park in the Southern Appalachian 
region. In the opinion of your petitioner, this is a matter which could 
well be left to the decision of the forester of the Government. 

Your petitioner is, however, of the opinion that it would be proper 
to express its conviction that whatever may be the decision respecting 
the area or exact location of such a national park, it should contain the 
highest mountains and the finest scenery in the whole Appalachian 
system, and this is found in the heart of the Great Smoky and Black 
mountains; and that the park should also embrace the largest area of 
virgin forest and the finest example of mixed forest in America, and 
this is found in the heart of the Balsam Mountains, and all of these are 
embraced within the limits of the tract hereinafter described. 

The tract of land will be found to comprise two areas of land, each 
lying partly in Tennessee and partly in North Carolina, connected by 
a narrow strip extending along the line dividing those States and 
embracing land in each of them. In the eastern end of this tract will 
be found, with others, the following-named mountains: 



Altitude in feet. 

Mount Mitchell 6, 711 

Balsam Cone 6,671 

Deer Mountain 6' 233 

Roan Mountain 6, 313 

Big Craggy 6, 068 

Potato Top 6, 393 

Black Brother _ 6, 619 



Altitude in feet. 

Cat Tail Peak 6, 611 

Black Dome g^ 502 

Mount Gibbs 6* 591 

Mount Hallback g^ 043 

Hairy Bear e^ 691 

Long Eidge 6, 259 



In the -svestern part of said tract will be found Mount Guyot (alti- 
tude 6,636 feet), Clingman's Dome (altitude 6,650 feet). Bald Mountain 
(altitude 6,220 feet), and many other high mountains, as well as the 
untouched tract of virgin forest hereinbefore referred to. 

Your petitioner therefore states that, in its opinion, by far the best 
land for the Appalachian national park lie.s between parallels 35 and 
37 of north latitude, and between the lines 82 and 85 of west longitude, 
and within the tract described as follows: 

Beginning at Joanna Bald Mountain, in the State of North Carolina, 
on the line dividing the county of Graham from Cherokee and Macon 



164 SOUTHERN^ APPALACHIAN REGION. 

counties, and running thence easterly along said line and the line 
between eastern Graham Count}^ and Swain Countj^ to a point on the 
Tuckasegee River near Bushnell; thence up the Tuckasegee River to 
a point 2 miles west of Bryson City; thence due north 4 miles; thence 
east about 13 miles to the line dividing Swain and Jackson counties; 
thence south to the Tuckasegee River; thence east to the Plott Balsam 
Ridge; then along said ridge, crossing the line between Haywood and 
Jackson counties, to a point 2 miles west of Waynesville; thence north- 
eastwardly to Pigeon River; thence down Pigeon River to Fines Creek; 
thence in a northwestwardly direction to French Broad River, at the 
mouth of Big Laurel Creek; thence due east to the line dividing Madi- 
son and Yancey counties; thence due south to a point 2 miles north of 
the Swannanoa River; thence easterly along a line parallel with and 
2 miles north of the line of the Southern Railway Company to a point 
due north of Old Fort; thence due north to North Toe River; thence 
down North Toe River to the line dividing the State of Tennessee from 
the State of North Carolina; thence westwardly in the State of Ten- 
nessee to Big Butte, at the corner of Washington, Green, and Unicoi 
counties, in Tennessee, and of Madison County, in North Carolina; 
thence southwestwardlj^ along the line dividing the State of Tennes- 
see from the State of North Cai'olina to Rocky Ridge; thence south- 
westwardly in a straight line to the French Broad River, at the mouth of 
Paint Creek; thence down the French Broad river to the mouth of Rock 
Creek; thence westwardly to the southeast corner of Jefferson County, 
Tenn. ; thence southwestwardly to Round Top, at a corner in the east- 
erly line of Blount County, Tenn. ; thence in a southwestwardly dii-ec- 
tion to the Tennessee line at the mouth of Abram or Panther Creek; 
thence south to the line dividing Cherokee and Graham counties, in 
North Carolina, and thence along said dividing line eastwardly to Joanna 
Bald Mountain, the place of beginning. 

Your petitioner therefore praj's that the Congress will take under 
consideration the matter herein set forth and cause the same to be 
examined into, and will take such action as will result in causing to be 
forthwith made such examination and surve3's as maj' be necessary to 
determine the best possible location and the proper area for a national 
park in the Southern Appalachian region, to the end that upon the 
coming in of the report of the forester, or of such other reports as 
the Congress msLj desire, appropriate steps ma}' be taken to acquire 
the title to land to be comprised within the limits of such park; or 
that the Congress will take such other action as it maj' deem proper. 

And your petitioners will ever praj', etc. 

Geo. S. Powell, 
President Appalachian National Parh Association. 

Dr. C. P. Amblee, 

Secretary. 

AsHEViLLE, N. C, December 19., 1899. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 165 

RESOLUTIONS. 

[American Association for the Advancement of Science, June 23, 1900, New Yorli City.] 

Resolved^ That the American As.sociation for the Advancement of 
Science, recog-nizing the importance of the preservation in its original 
condition of some portion of the hard-wood forests of the Southern 
Appalachian region, respectful! j' petitions Congress to provide for the 
establishment in that region of a national forest reserve. 

[American Forestry Association, December 13, 1900, Washington, D. C] 

ResoJmed, That the action of Congress in making an appropriation 
to investigate the forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian 
Mountains meets with our cordial approval, and that we recommend 
that further steps be taken for the creation by purchase of a national 
Appalachian park in the high mountain region of the States of North 
and South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. 

[National Board of Trade, January 23, 1901, Washington, D. C] 

Resolved, That the National Board of Trade respectfully urges upon 
Congress the establishment of the proposed Minnesota National Park 
and of the proposed Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve as a just 
and necessary measure of forest protection to those portions of our 
countrjr which at present contain no national forest reserves. 

[Memphis (Tenn.) Board of Trade.] 

Whereas there is a widespread movement in this counti-y looking to 
the establishment by the General Government in the high forest- 
covered mountain portions of Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, 
and South Carolina of a national forest reserve, which will perpet- 
uate the forest of this region, forever protect the headwaters of many 
important streams in these States, and serve as a pleasure and health 
resort at all seasons for a large portion of the laeople of this country; 
and whereas the proposal that the Government establish such a forest 
reserve has been approved by the leading scientific societies and for- 
estry associations of this countr}', and b\' the general press: 

Resolved, That the Board of Trade of Memphis, Tenn., also heartily 
approves of the establishment of such a forest reserve, and respect- 
fully asks the Senators and Kepresentatives at Washington from this 
State to urge upon Congress the favorable and prompt consideration 
of this measure. 

Similar resolutions favoring the establishment of the proposed for- 
est reserve or park by the Government have been passed by the com- 
mercial organizations in Richmond, Raleigh, Wilmington. Charleston, 
Columbia, Savannah, Augu,sta, Atlanta, Mobile, Knoxville, Chatta- 
nooga, Nashville, Memphis, and in many other of the larger cities of 
the countrv. 



166 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 

PRELIMINABY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE 
ON THE FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

To the Senate and House of Representatives: 

I transmit herewith, for the information of the Congress, a letter 
from the Secretary of Agriculture, in which he presents a preliminary 
report of the investigations upon the forests of the Southern Appala- 
chian Mountain region. Upon the basis of the facts established by 
this investigation the Secretary of Agriculture recommends the pur- 
chase of land for a national forest reserve in western North Carolina, 
eastern Tennessee, and adjacent States. I commend to the favorable 
consideration of the Congress the reasons upon which the recommend- 
ation rests. 

William McKinley. 

Executive Mansion, January 16, 1901. 



United States Department of Agriculture, 

Office of the Secretary, 
Washington, !>■ C, January 3, 1901. 
The Presideni : 

The bill making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture 
for the tiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provides that a "sum not to 
exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the Secretary of Agriculture, 
be used to investigate the forest conditions in the Southern Appala- 
chian Mountain region of western North Carolina and adjacent States." 
In accordance with this provision 1 have made a thorough investiga- 
tion of the forests in a portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, 
as directed above, including an estimate of the amount and condition 
of the standing timber, an inquiry as to the suitability of this region 
for a national park, as proposed by the Appalachian National Park 
Association, and an examination of the validity of the reasons advanced 
by its advocates for the crea^^ion of such a park. In this task I have 
received generous and effective cooperation and assistance, through 
the United States Geological Survey, from the Department of the Inte- 
rior, which recognized in this way the deeji and widely diffused public 
interest in the plan. 

The forest investigation was made to include a stud}' of the charac- 
ter and distribution of the species of timber trees, the density and 
value of forest growth, the extent to which the timber has been cut 
or damaged by fire, the size and nature of the present holdings, the 
prices at which these forest lands can now be purchased, and the gene- 
ral and special conditions that affect the prosecution of conservative 
forestr}' on a large scale. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 167 

The hydrographic survey of the region, conducted by the United 
States Geological Survey, includes a general study of its topographic 
features; of the relation of the soils, forest cover, and I'ainfall; of the 
quantity of water flowing out of it through the various streams during 
different seasons, and of the influence exerted on the regularity of this 
flow by forest clearings. More than 750 stream measurements have 
already been made and much additional data of special value has been 
secured. 

In addition to these investigations I have given thorough attention 
to the arguments advanced by the movers for the proposed park and 
to those of their opponents, and as a result I am strongly of the opinion 
that this matter is worthy of careful consideration. 

I have the honor to transmit herewith a mounted original copy of a 
large map, which shows in detail the mapping of forests accomplished 
during the past summer over an area of nearly 8,000 square miles. A 
full report of the work and its results is now in preparation and will 
be submitted for your consideration at an earljr date. The following 
preliminary statement is made to bring before you without dela}' a 
summarj^ of the facts sufficient to set forth clearly the principal features 
of the region and the plan. 

The movement for the purchase and control of a large area of forest 
land in the East bjr the Government has chiefly contemplated a national 
park. The idea of a national park is conservation, not use; that of a 
forest reserve, conservation by use. I have, therefore, to recommend 
a forest reserve instead of a park. It is fully shown by the investiga- 
tion that such a reser\'e would be self-supporting from the sale of tim- 
ber under wisely directed conservative forestry. 

Extensive areas of hard-wood forests within the region colored on 
the accompanj'ing map are still in their primitive condition, and these 
are among the very best and richest hard-wood forests of the United 
States. The region in general is better adapted for forestry than for 
agricidtural purposes. It is located about the headwaters of numer- 
ous streams, such as the Ohio, Tennessee, Savannah, Yadkin, and 
Roanoke, which are important both for water power and for naviga- 
tion. The genei-al conditions within the region are exceptionally 
favorable for the carrying on of large operations in practical forestry, 
and the weather is suitable for lumbering operations at all seasons of 
the year. It contains a greater variety of hard-wood trees than any 
other region of the United States, since the Northern and Southern i 
species here meet. It is a region of exceptional beauty and pictur- 
esqneness, and, although it would not be easih' accessible to visitors 
in all parts at all seasons of the year, by far the greater portion of its 
area would be easily reached and climatically pleasant throughout the 
year. 



168 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

It contains within the forest-covered areas no large settlements or 
large mining operations which would interfere with the management 
of such a forest reserve, and yet there is a sufficient population for the 
working and protection of the forests. Large lumber companies are 
rapidly invading the region, and the early destruction of the more 
valuable timber is imminent. Lands in this region suitable for such 
a forest reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 
to 100,000 acres, and they can be purchased at jirices ranging from $2 
to |5 per acre. It is probable that the average price would not exceed 
$3 per acre. In explanation of the widespread and urgent demand for 
the establishment in this southern Appalachian region of a national 
park or forest reserve, it may be added that it contains the highest and 
largest mountain masses, and perhaps the wildest and most picturesque 
scenery, east of the Mississippi River; that it is a region of perfect 
healthfulness, already largely used as a health resort both summer 
and winter, and that it lies within a little more than a day's travel of 
the larger portion of the population of this country. 

The rapid consumption of our timber supplies, the extensive destruc- 
tion of our forests b}' fire, and the resulting increase in the irregularity 
of the flow of water in important streams have served to develop 
among the people of this country an interest in forest problems which 
is one of the marked features of the close of the centurj^ In response 
to this growing interest the Government has set aside in the Western 
forest reserves an area of more than 70,000 square miles. There is 
not a single forest reserve in the East. 

1 have the honor to be, very respectfully, 

James Wilson, Secretary. 



REPORT OF THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESERVATIONS 
AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME. 

[Fifty-sixth Congress, second session. Senate Calendar No. 2227. Report No. 2221.] 
FOREST RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION. 

[February 12. 1901.— Report by Mr. Beveridge, from the Committee on Forest Reservations and the 
Protection of Game, to accompany S. 5518.] 

A majority of the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Pro- 
tection of Game, having had under consideration the bill (S. 5518) to 
provide for the establishment of a national forest reserve in the South- 
ern Appalachian Mountain region, reports the bill with the recommen- 
dation that it do pass and submits the following report: 

An investigation of the forests of this region, authorized by Con- 
gress at its last session, has been conducted during the past year by 
the Department of Agriculture, with the cooperation of the United 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 169 

States Geological Survey. A preliminary report from the Secretary 
of Agriculture, transmitted to Congress with a brief commendatory 
message bj^ the President, is herewith included. It is preceded by a 
letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, which declares his full 
approval of this bill. The plan to purchase a foi'est reserve or park 
in the Southern Appalachian Mountains has been favorably considered 
and is advocated by the National Board of Trade, by the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, by the American Forestry 
Association, and b}' numerous similar organizations throughout the 
United States. Resolutions from the bodies named are presented in 
the appendix as showing that the movement for the establishment of 
this forest reserve is based not upon local or selfish interests, but 
upon the widespread, intelligent national appi'eciation of the impor- 
tance of prompt and favorable action by Congress. 

That such a forest reserve should be established in the hard-wood 
regions of the East is the general conviction of men of science, experts 
in forestry, intelligent lumbermen, and of men connected with the 
great business interests of the countr}'; and this view tinds frequent 
and emphatic expression in the technical and general press. Reckless 
cutting and the forest fires which follow are now destroying these 
hard-wood forests at a rate and to an extent which is already having 
serious results over wide areas. In addition to its probable effect on 
climate, it is causing irregularities in the flow of the streams, which 
are destrojang their value for water power and navigation during the 
dry seasons, and during the rainy seasons are washing away the soils 
on the steeper hillsides and mountain slopes, filling up the stream beds 
with sediment, and destroying the agricultural value of the lowlands 
along the streams. Both the diminishing flow of water during the dry 
season and the deposit of sediment in the stream beds and harbors 
during periods of flood are becoming yearly more dangerous to navi- 
gation and are leading directly to increased annual appropriations for 
rivei's and harbors. 

The establishment of the proposed national forest reserve will tend 
to remedy these serious and growing evils, will protect the sources of 
man}' important streams, and, under the management of trained forest 
experts, will serve as a demonstration of the method of perpetuating 
forests and yet making them pay. Such an example will lead both 
States and individuals to encourage and practice forest management 
and restoration on all lands which are better suited to forest growth 
than for agricultural purposes. 

The pioposed national reserve for the protection and use of hard- 
wood forests should be located in the Southern Appalachian Mountains 
for several reasons. 

That region contains the greatest variety of hard woods to be found 
anywhere on this continent, because the northern and southern forest 



170 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

flora intermingle there. A list of the trees native to the region of 
the proposed reserve is given hereafter. We find there the largest 
remaining bodies of these forests in their virgin condition, the largest 
and highest mountains east of Colorado, and the largest mountain 
masses covered with hard-wood forests in the United States. 

The slopes of these mountains contain the sources of the Tennessee, 
the Savannah, the Broad, the Catawba, and other rivers, and important 
tributaries of the Ohio. This fact is doubty significant because this 
region has none of the extensive glacial gravel deposits which serve in 
the more northern States as storage reservoirs for water, and so aid 
the forests to maintain uniformity of flow in the streams. Hence this 
measure stands on a basis of its own, and need not be regarded as cre- 
ating a precedent for similar action in other cases. 

This should be a national forest reserve, for the reason that the 
problems and dangers which it is intended to meet are national. It is 
true that a few States are now establishing State forest reserves, and 
it is believed that the measure now proposed will encourage such a 
movement on the part of other States. In New York large expendi- 
tures are being made to purchase reserve forest lands Ij'ing entirely 
within that State, about the headwaters of important streams which 
also lie within the limits of the State. But the great mountain masses 
of this proposed national forest reserve lie in several States, and the 
streams which rise among them flow thi'ough and are of importance to 
more than as many others. The combined annual income of the sev- 
eral States grouped about this region is but little greater than the 
appropriation carried by this bill. 

It may be urged against this measure that it is a new departure for 
the Government. But the Western forest reserves have been set aside 
out of the public domain which was purchased bj' the Government at a 
time when the nation was composed largelj^ of the Eastern States. Out 
of the lands so purchased nearh^ 50,000.000 of acres of forest-covered 
lands have been set aside as national forest reserves and parks for the 
purpose of perpetuating a timber supply in the Western States and 
Territories and for preserving forever the sources of their more impor- 
tant streams. Furthermore, the Govei-nment has recentlj' been pur- 
chasing lands in the East for militaiy parks and reservations and for 
other purposes. Hence it ma}^ be asserted in all fairness that what is 
now proposed is new neither in principle nor practice. In view of the 
importance of the measure now proposed in behalf of the hard-wood 
forests of the countrj^, and considering the fact that there are no pub- 
lic lands covered with hard-wood forests, and that neitner individuals 
nor the States adjacent to this region can reasonablj' oe expected to 
establish such foi'est reserves as are absolutel}^ essential, it is evidently 
the duty of the General Government to take the present step. 

It will be asked how far the management and care of such a forest 
reserve will prove an annual expense to the Government. Attention 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 171 

is called, in reply, to the accompanying letter from the Secretary of 
Agriculture, in which he sa3's: "I am entirely confident that verj^ 
soon after its creation the proposed reserve would, under conservative 
forestry, be self-supporting fi'om the sale of timber." Further, it 
may be said that many European forests, under government supervi- 
sion, 3'ield a net annual income from the sale of timber and otlier 
products of from $1 to $2 per acre or more. While no such income is 
expected to result from the proposed reserve. in the immediate future, 
yet it is confidently expected that in the course of a few years this 
reserve will be self-supporting; and that subsequently, as the hard- 
wood forests of other regions ai'e cut awaj' and the country more 
thickh' settled, the sale of timber and other products from this reserve 
will 3'ield a considerable net profit. 

Other important questions connected with this measure which have 
been considered by the committee are fulh^ answered in the statement 
which follows from the Secretary of Agriculture. The memorial of 
the Appalachian National Park Association and other documents are 
added. 

The legislatures of the several States within which the proposed 
forest reserve ma3' be located, with a single exception, have already 
conferred upon Congress the necessarj- authoritj' to acquire lands 
within their boundaries. In the case of the exception a resolution 
which indorses the plan has passed both houses of the legislature, and 
further action maj' confidentl}' be expected in due time. 

This is a measure which has every consideration in its favor; and, 
in view of its importance and the beneficent results which will cer- 
tainly' flow from its adoption, it should commend itself to the wisdom 
of Congress, as it must appeal to the patriotism of every citizen. 



APPENDIX. 

February 9, 1901. 
My Dear Senator: I am in receipt of your letter of tliis date, in which you ask 
for an expression of my opinion regarding Senate bill 5518, which provides for the 
purchase of a forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. After a thor- 
ough investigation of the forest conditions of this region, 1 am heartily in favor of the 
creation of the proposed reserve and of Mr. Pritchard's bill. The region in which it 
is proposed to locate this reserve contains the finest hard-wood forests yet remaining 
in the United States; it is admirably adapted to the purpose.s of a public resort for 
health and recreation; the land may be purchased at a reasonable price; the preser- 
vation of the forest is essential not only to the well-being of the region itself, but to 
that of great rivers which flow from it and to the interests they subserve; and I am 
entirely confident that very soon after its creation the proposed reserve would, under 
conservative forestry, be self-supporting from the sale of timber. 
Very respectfully, 

James Wilson, Secretary. 
Hon. Albert J. Beveridge, 

United States Senate. 
You will find a more detailed statement of my position in my letter to the President, 
transmitted by him to the Congress January 16. (See p. 166. ) 



172 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 



LEGISLATIVE RESOLUTIONS AND ACTS IN THE SEVERAL STATES 
WHOSE TERRITORY EXTENDS INTO THE REGION OF THE PRO- 
POSED FOREST RESERVE. 

VIRGINIA. 

AN ACT to give consent by the State of Virginia to acquisition bj' the United 
States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest 
reserve in the said State. 

[Approved Febnmry 15, 1901.] 

Whei"ea.s it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in 
the high mountain regions of Virginia and adjacent States a national 
forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests forever and pre- 
serve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will 
prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and 

Whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress pro 
viding for the purchase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, 

Be it enacted by the c/eneral assemhly of Virginia, That the consent 
of the State of Virginia be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition bj^ 
the United States, by purchase or gift, or by condemnation according 
to law, of such lands in Virginia as in the opinion of the Federal Gov- 
ernment may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest 
reserve in that region: Provided^ That the State shall retain a concur- 
rent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far 
that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue 
under the authoritA' of the State against any person charged with the 
commission of anj' crime without or within said jurisdiction, may be 
executed thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed. 
And provided. That in all condemnation proceedings the rights of the 
Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth 
by the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves. 

2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws 
as it may deem necessary to the acquisition, as hereinbefore provided, 
for incorporation in .said national forest reserve such fore.st-covered 
lands lying in Virginia as in the opinion of the Federal Government 
may be needed for this purpose. 

3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and 
to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations of 
both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment for violation 
thereof, as in its judgment may be necessary for the management, 
control, and protection of such lands as luay be from time to time 
acquired by the United States under the provisions of this act. 

4. This act shall be in force from its passage. 

[For resolution of March 21, 1903, see p. 190.] 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 173 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the 
Southern Appalachian Mountain region. 

Resolved hy the house of representatmes^ the senate concurrwig : 

The general assembly of North Carolina hereby expresses its approval 
of the movement looking- to the establishment by the Federal Govern- 
ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appa- 
lachian Mountain reoion as a wise and beneficent measure, such as 
manj^ other nations have already' adopted, and which this country 
should adopt before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its 
forests and the protection of the sources of important streams; and 

Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved 
and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations 
of this country, and by the general press; and 

Whereas this general assembly has passed an act granting its consent 
to the acquisition of lands in western North Carolina by the Federal 
Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the 
reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this State; and 

Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for 
the purchase of lands for this purpose: 

Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from 
this State are herebj' requested to ui'ge iipon Congress the importance 
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure. 

In the general assembly, read three times, and ratified this the 18th 
day of January, A. D. 1901. 

W. D. Turner, 

President of Seriate. 
Walter E. Moore, 
Speaker of the House of Representatives. 



AN ACT to give consent by the State of North Carolina to the acquisition by the 
United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national 
forest reserve in said State. 

Whereas it is proposed that the Fedei-al Government purchase lands 
in the high mountain regions of western North Carolina and adjacent 
States for the purpose of establishing there a national forest reserve 
which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the head- 
waters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great 
and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas a bill 
has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the pur- 
chase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, the general assembly 
of North Carolina do enact: 

Sec. 1. That the consent of the general assembly of North Carolina 
be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by pur- 



174 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

chase or by condemnation, with adequate compensation except as he -e- 
inafter provided, of such lands in western North Carolina as in the 
opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establish- 
ment of such a national forest reserve in that region : Provided^ That 
the State of North Carolina shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with 
the United States in and over such lands so far that ci\41 process in all 
cases and such criminal process as may issue under the authoritj- of 
the State of North Carolina against any person charged with the com- 
mission of anv crime without or within said jurisdiction may be exe- 
cuted thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed. 

Sec. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such 
laws as it may deem necessarjr to the acquisition as hereinafter pro- 
vided for incorporation in said national forest reserve such forest- 
covered lands lying in western North Carolina as in the opinion of the 
Federal Government may be needed for this puipose: Provided^ 
That as much as 200 acres of any tract of land occupied as a home by 
bona fide residents in this State at the date of the ratificatioii of this 
act shall be exempt from the provisions of this section. 

Sec. 3. Power is hereb}" conferred upon Congress to pass such laws 
and to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations 
of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment therefor, as 
in its judgment may be deemed necessary for the management, con- 
trol, and protection of such lands as may be from time to time acquired 
bj' the United States under the provisions of this act. 

Sec. i. This act shall be in force from and after its ratification. 

In the general assembly, read three times, and ratified this the 18th 
day of Januarv, A. D. 1901. 

W. D. Turner, 
President of the Senate. 
Walter E. Moore, 
Speaker of the House of Repi^esentatives. 

TENNESSEE. 

A RESOLUTION' favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the 
Southern Appalachian Jlountain region. 

Resolved hy the house of representatives., the senate concurring: 
The general assembl}' of Tennessee hereby expresses its approval of 
the movement looking to the establishment b_y the Federal Govern- 
ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appa- 
lachian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many 
other nations have alreadj^ adopted, and which this countrj^ has already 
adopted in the West and should adopt in the East before it is too 
late, looking to the conservation of its forests and the protection of 
the sources of important streams; and 



SOUTHERN APPAL ACHIAJSr REGION. 175 

Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been 
approved and urged by the leading scientitic societies and forestry 
associations of this country and by the general press; and 

Whereas this general assembly has before it a bill granting the 
State's consent to the acquisition of lands in eastern Tennessee by the 
Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believ- 
ing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this 
State; and 

Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the 
purchase of lands for this pui'pose: 

Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from 
this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance 
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure. 
Adopted February 1, 1901. 

E. B. Wilson, 
SjMaker of House of Representatives. 
Newton H. White, 

Speaker of Senate. 



AN ACT to give consent by the State of Tennessee to the acquisition by the United 
States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest 
reserve in the said State. 

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the 
high mountain regions of eastern Tennessee and adjacent States a 
national forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever 
preserve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will 
thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State. 

And whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress 
providing for the purchase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, 

Be it enacted hy the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee, 

Section 1. That the consent of the State of Tennessee be, and is 
hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, gift, 
or condemnation according to law, of such land in this State as in the 
opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establish- 
ment of such a national forest reserve in that region: 

Provided, That the State shall retain the concurrent jurisdiction 
with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process 
in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue under the authority 
of the State against any person charged with the commission of any 
crime without or within said jurisdiction, maj^ be executed thereon in 
like manner as if this act had not been passed: 

Provided further , That this act shall apply to lands in Tennessee 
lying within 20 miles of the North Carolina State line; that all con- 
demnation proceedings herein provided shall be limited to lands now 



176 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

foxiest covered, and that in all such condemnation proceedings the 
right of the Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects 
set forth in this act and in the laws of the United States in regard to 
forest reserves. 

Sec. 2. Be it further enacted. That power is hereby conferred upon 
Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition, 
as hereinbefore provided, for incorporation in said national forest 
reserve such forest-covered lands lying in the State as in the opinion 
of the Federal Government may be needed for this purpose. 

Sec. 3. Be it further enacted^ That power is herebj' conferred upon 
Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the making of 
such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature, and pro- 
vide punishment for violation thereof, as in its judgment maj' be 
necessary for the management, control, and protection of such lands 
as nia}^ be from time to time acquired by the United States under the 
provisions of this act. 

Sec. 4. Be it further enacted. That this act take effect f ron.i and 
after its passage, the public welfare requiring it. 

Passed April 16, 1901. 

E. B. Wilson, 
Speaker of the HoufiC of Representatives. 
Newton H. White, 
Speaker of tlie Senate. 

Approved April 23, 1901. 

Benton McMillan, Governor. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the 
Southern Appalachian Mountain region. 

Resolved hy the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring: 
The general assembly of South Carolina hereby expresses its approval 
of the movement looking to the establishment by the Federal Govern- 
ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appala- 
chian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many 
other nations have alread}' adopted, and which this country should 
adopt before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its forests 
and the protection of the sources of important streams; and whereas 
the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved and 
urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations of 
this country, and by the general press; and whereas this general 
a.ssembly has passed an act granting its consent to the acquisition of 
lands in northern South Carolina by the Federal Government for 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 177 

incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the measure to be one 
of great importance to the people of this State; and whereas a bill is 
now before the Federal Congress providing for the p>irchase of lands 
for this purpose: 

Sesolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress fi'om 
this State are herebj^ requested to urge upon Congress the importance 
of prompt and favoi'able action in behalf of this measure. 

Ratified. 



AN" ACT to give consent by the State of South Carolina to the acquisition by the 
United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national 
forest reserve in said State. 

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the 
high, mountain region of South Carolina and adjacent States a national 
forest reserve which will perpetuate these forests and forever pre- 
serve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus 
prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; 
and whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress pro- 
viding for the purchase of said lands for such purpose: Therefore, 

Be it enacted hythe ge)ieral assembly of the State of South Carolina: 

Section 1. That the consent of the State of South Carolina be, and 
is hereb}', given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, 
gift, or condemnation according to law, of such lands in this State as 
in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the 
establishment of such national forest reserve in that region : Provided, 
That the State shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with the United 
States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all cases, and 
such criminal process as may issue under the authority of the State 
against any person charged with the commission of any crime without 
or within said jurisdiction, may be executed thereon in like manner 
as if this act had not been passed. 

Sec. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such 
laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore pro- 
vided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve, of such 
forest-covered land lying in the State as in the opinion of the Federal 
Government maj' be needed for this purpose. 

Sec. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such 
laws and to make, and provide for the making, of such rules and regu- 
lations, of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment for 
violation thereof, as in its judgment may be necessary for the man- 
agement, control, and protection of such lands as ma}' be from time 
to time acciuired by the United States under the provisions of this act. 

Sec. i. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. 

*S. Doc. 84 12 



178 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

GEORGIA. 

A RESOLUTION' concerning the ceding of the jurisdiction over certain lands in the 
State of Georgia to the United States of America for the purpose of establishing a 
national forest reserve or park. 

Whereas there is a widespread movement in this country asking that 
the Federal Government purchase from the present owners certain 
forest-covered lands lying within the high mountain regions of the 
States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, 
about the headwaters of the larger streams flowing through these and 
adjacent States, for the purpose of establishing in this region a national 
forest reserve, which will forever protect the sources of the rivers that 
furnish our water powers and navigation facilities, which will demon- 
strate to the people of the country how such forest-covered areas can 
be managed and perpetuated to the best advantage, and which will 
become a great national resort within easy reach, at all seasons, of 
much of the larger portion of the population of this country; and 
whereas this general assembly desires to place on record its interest 
in, and encouragement of, a movement which promises such great and 
lasting benefits to the people of Georgia and the neighboring States: 

Be it resolved hy the general assembly of the State of Georgia, That 
this general assembly' hereby expresses its willingness to cede to the 
United States of America the jurisdiction of the State of Georgia in 
and over such of the forest-covered mountain lands in this State as 
may be needed for the purpose of establishing such national forest 
reserve or national park, when the land areas of such tract or tracts 
have been designated, and a plat or plats of the same deposited with 
the secretary of state in Atlanta: Provided, That the State shall 
retain concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over said 
tract or tracts so far that all civil and criminal processes issued under 
the authority of the State may be executed thereon in like manner as 
if this act were not in force: And 2)rovided further. That said cession 
of jurisdiction shall not take effect until the United States shall have 
acquired title to said tract or tracts. 

The general assembly respectfully asks the favorable consideration 

of this measure by Congress. 

Clark Howell, 

President of the Senate. 

Chas. S. Northen, 

Secretary of the Senate. 

John D. Little, 

Speaker of the House of Representatives. 

Jno. T. Boifeuillet, 

Clerk of tJte House of Representatives. 

Approved December 18, 1900. 

A. D. Candler, Governor. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 179 

AN ACT to give consent by the State of Georgia to the acquisition by the United 
States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national fores 
reserve in said State. 

Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the 
high mountain regions Of Georgia and adjacent States a national forest 
reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the 
headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of 
great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas 
a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the 
pui-chase of such lands for said purpose, the general assemblj' of 
Georgia do enact: 

Section 1. That the consent of the State of Georgia be, and is 
hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase or 
gift, or bj' condemnation according to the law, of such lands in the 
mountain region of Georgia as in the opinion of the Federal Govern 
ment may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest 
reserve in that region: Provided^ That the State shall retain a con- 
current jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so 
far that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may 
issue under the authority of the State against an}^ person charged with 
the commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction, may 
be executed in like manner as if this act had not been passed: And 
provided^ That in all condemnation proceedings the rights of the 
Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth 
by the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves. 

Sec. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such 
laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore pro- 
vided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve, of such moun- 
tain lands lying in Georgia as in the opinion of the Federal Govern- 
ment ma}^ be needed for this purpose. 

Sec. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws 
and to make, or provide for the making, of such rules and regulations, 
of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment therefor, 
as in its judgment may be necessary for the management, control, and 
protection of such land as may be from time to time acquired by the 
United States under the provisions of this act. 

This act shall be in force from its passage. 

Passed December 13, 1901. 



180 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 

EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS. 

The few extracts from the press given below will serve as an illus- 
tration of the extent to which the proposal that the Government estab- 
lish a forest reserve or park in the southern Appalachian region has 
met with public approval: 

[New York (N. Y.) Tribune.l 

If no steps by the Government of the United States are taken, the 
entire tree system of these States will be obliterated, leaving the peaks 
and valleys of six great States of the Union divested of timber and 
foliage. 

[Hartford (Conn.) Courant.] 

The Appalachian Park ought in a dozen j^ears from now to be one 
of the chief attractions of the United States. The decisions in its favor 
would be unanimous if the matter was left to those who knew the coun- 
try and its possibilities. 

[Boston (Mass.) Transcript.] 

We hope the plan will fructify, for it would give us benefit and 
bring us credit as a people. * * * It is most sincerely to be hoped 
that this admirable scheme will be quickly and cordially taken up by 
Congress and carried to success. It is a case of now or never. 

[Buffalo (N. Y.) Commercial.] 

The United States Government has gone into the forestrj' business on 
an extensive scale, and it is believed that the future returns will more 
than justify the liberal policy adopted in this respect. 

[New Y'ork (N. Y.) Times.] 

The receipts from the French national forests altogether were about 
twice their expenses in the last year for which the returns are accessible. 

The urgency in this case is greater than it was in the case of the 
Yellowstone Park, when it was laid out. Certainly no American 
citizen now grudges the expense of that public possession. 

[Baltimore (Md.) Sun.] 

Among the manj^ measures that have come before Congress none 
merits more thoughtful consideration or commends itself more impress- 
ively to the consideration and approval of the two Houses. 

[Providence (R. I.) Journal.] 

As a mere measure of protection to the material intei'ests which 
may be affected bv the cutting of the timber and the drying up of 
streams. Congress ought to do something about this as a Fedei'al 

question. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 181 

[Logiinsport (Ind.) Reporter.] 

The General Government ought to step in before it is too late. 
* * * If the timber is all stripped from these hills the streams will 
dry up and the ultimate loss will be serious and widespread. 

[Springlield (111.) Journal.] 

It is certainly true that there have been few park projects that have 
had more to recommend them. 

[Cleveland (Ohio) Leader.] 

It is claimed with reason that such a park would not only be more 
accessible to the great majority of the American people than the 
Yellowstone Park ever can be, but it would also be available as a 
place of resort all through the year. * * * It is true, further, 
that the proposed Appalachian Park would contain far better speci- 
mens of typical American forest life than any which can be found in 
the Yellowstone Park. That is an important item to be taken into 
account. 

[Providence (R. I.) Journal.] 

There is but one such forest in America, and neglect of the opportu- 
nity now presented of saving it may work irretrievable loss. The 
forests once destroyed can not be replaced. 

[New York Lumber Trade Journal.] 

The Journal is heartily in favor of such a park and hopes that Con- 
gress will give it favorable attention. 

[Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal.] 

I can not believe that the next Congress will fail to allow an appro- 
priation to carry forward this great work. The Government has 
already set aside in Western reserves an area of more than 70,000 
square miles, while there is not a single Government foi'est reserve in 
the East. 

[Forest and Stream.] 

The Appalachian Forest Eeserve measure must go over to another 
Congress. We believe, however, that this is simply a postponement, 
not a defeat, of the scheme. The reserve, there is abundant confi- 
dence for believing, will ultimately be established. 

[Forester, Washington, D. C] 

It is safe to say that onlj^ the great pressure of other business pre- 
vented the House from voting in its favor this j^ear. Some ground 
will have to be gone over again, but it needs no prophet to see that, 
though its friends failed of success this year, this reserve will in time • 
be established. 



182 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

[Farmer Advocate, Topeka, Kans.] 

Everyone interested in having this beautiful region preserved from 
wanton destruction by fire and timber thieves should write at once to 
their Congressmen to vote for the passage of the bill establishing the 
park. 

[The Medical Dial, Minneapolis, Minn.] 

The therapeutical uses of such a national park are exceedingly great. 
The salubrity of the climate in this .section of the country, amid the 
everlasting hills and the giant trees, has no parallel in the world. 

[St. Louis (Mo.) Star.] 

It is to be hoped Congress will act favorabty upon the petition. 
Such a park would be a proper twin for the Yellowstone. 

[Davenport (Iowa) Democrat.] 

There are very many reasons for it — none worth counting on the 
other side. 

[American Field, New York City.] 

The American Field urges ever}^ public-spirited citizen of this coun- 
try to " put his shoulder to the wheel" and to work upon his repre- 
sentatives in both halls of Congress to obtain during the next session 
of Congress decisive action toward the creation of the Appalachian and 
Minnesota national parks. 

[Harrisburg (Pa.) Telegraph.] 

This country is gradually waking up to the destruction of its timber, 
and the Secretary of Agriculture does wisely when he advocates forest 
preservation and forest reservation. 

[Pittsburg (Pa.) Commercial-Gazette.] 

Such a forest reservation ought to prove a good investment of 
national money. 

[Brooklyn (N. Y.) Citizen.] 

Measures to stop the destruction of mountain forests which protect 
the water sources in the Appalachians and elsewhere will need to be 
taken some day, and they ought to begin now when the Government 
is in pecuniary condition to make the cost of condemnation and care a 
trifling matter. 

[New York Herald, January 12, 1900.] 

The efforts of the Appalachian Park Association are to be com- 
mended. Its promoters are moved only for the public good, and 
should this movement finally succeed, the thanks of the entire com- 
munity will be due to them for their earnest efforts. 



SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN BEGION". 183 

[Albany (N. Y.) Argus, January 7, 1900.] 

It is sincerely hoped Congress will immediately take up the matter 
and establish the park. 

[The Tradesmen, Chattanooga, Tenn.] 

The movement to establish a national park in the Southern Appa- 
lachian Mountains deserves a general and heartj' support. 

[Knoxville (Tenn.) Times.] 

If the Government wants to make an appropriation to encourage 
both the aesthetic and the useful, it could not easily do a better thing 
than to establish this Appalachian National Park. 

[New Orleans (La. ) Picayune.] 

The Appalachian region is accessible to a greater number of the 
citizens of the United States than an3^ other section where there is any 
likelihood of a national park reserve being established. 

[Parkersburg (W. Va.) Sentinel.] 

That such a forest reserve should be established in the hardwood 
regions of the East is the opinion of men of science, experts in forestry, 
intelligent lumbermen and men connected with the business interests 
of the country. 

[Lynchburg (Va.) Advance.] 

The merits of this scheme should commend it to the judgment of 
Congress and insure the speedy passage of the bill. 

[Montgomery (Ala ) Advertiser.] 

The Appalachian Park will offer manj^ substantial advantages which 
the Yellowstone lacks, and we hope the matter will not be allowed to 
rest until all steps are taken and all the laws passed necessary to carry 
the project to a successful termination. 

[Hartford (Conn.) Courant.] 

No part of the United States offers more attractions to the sight-seer. 
It is ideally fitted for a park and the Government will miss a great 
opportunity if it fails to avail itself of the present conditions and to 
secure the lands which can still be had for reasonable prices. 

[Toledo (Ohio) Journal.] 

This part of the Blue Ridge is recognized as the most salubrious, 
combining a dry and equal climate, attracting thousands of people 
from the North during the winter months, and drawing large numbers 
from the South during the warm season. It enjoys the best properties 
of a winter park and a summer resort. The climate is healthy, equa- 
ble, balmy, yet exhilarating. , 



184 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 

[Indianapolis (Ind.) News.] 

The preservation of forests is a subject to which too little attention 
has been paid in the past and to which should be given u:uch thought. 
Already the country is experiencing the bad effects of indifference. 

[Tallahassee (Fla.) Tallahassian.] 

The wildest and most naturally beautiful part of this countr}' east 
of the Rocky Mountains is that region where North Carolina, Tennes- 
see, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia approach each other. 

[Chicago Times-Herald, December 24, 1899.] 

The Blue Ridge has a climate that is delightful at anj' season of the 
year, and as it is only twenty-four hours travel from Chicago, New York, 
or New Orleans, the mass of the population in the east, even those in 
moderate circumstances, could readih^ avail themselves of the advan- 
tages it offers as a health and pleasure resort. 

[Cincinnati Volks Freund, February 1, 1900.] 

We wish the undertaking complete success. 

[Newport (R. I.) News.] 

The central location of the proposed park is undoubtedly a strong 

point in its favor. It is within easy reach of most of the great cities 

of the middle Western States and the Eastern and Southern States. 

Apart f rooi these natural reasons, the Eastern States are entitled to a 

• national park. 

[St. Louis (Mo.) Globe-Democrat.] 

There is every reason why the movement for the establishment of 
the Appalachian Park in North Carolina should succeed. 

[The Hartford Courant.] 

The wildest and mo.st natural!}' beautiful part of this country east 
of the Rocky Mountains is that region where North Carolina, Tennes- 
see, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia approach each other. It 
is a movmtain country with an average elevation of 4.000 feet and 
peaks running up to thousands of feet higher. The tallest mountain 
east of the Rockies is in North Carolina. 

This wild region abounds in timber, and is still a natural and 
unbroken wilderness except as the lumbermen invade its quiet. They 
have come. Already traffic in forest land is on and the railroads of 
the vicinity are loaded with lumber for the market. Let the American 
people sit by with their accustomed optimistic apathy and before long 
the forests will be gone, the water courses left to dry up, the bears, 
deer, and other wild animals killed off, and nothing but a fading- 
memory remain of what now is a great natural park. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 185 

The General Government ought to step in, before it is too late, and 
take possession of the whole region. The Yellowstone Park, far away 
and to all but a few inaccessible, should be supplemented by this nat- 
ural reservation, which is easily reached by the great majority of the 
people of the United States. Take your map and j'ou will iind that 
from Boston on the east around by Buffalo, Cleveland, Cincinnati, 
Chicago, and St. Louis to New Orleans, Jacksonville, and so on up to 
Washington every cit}^ on the imaginarj' circuit has railroad facilities 
bringing it within not more at most than one night's ride of Asheville, 
the central point in the Blue Ridge and Great Smoky country. Estab- 
lish a park there and people from every large cit}' this side of the 
Mississippi would be visiting it in large numbers at all seasons of the 
year. 

As an opportunity for conferring on the citizens of the country a 
means of great enjo}^ment, this chance for Congressional action is 
unique. But that i-eally would be only an incident of the work. In 
this elevated land are multitudes of clear, sweet streams delivering 
water to the Atlantic coast and to the Mississippi River. The divide 
is in the possible park. If the timber is all stripped from these hills, 
the streams will drj' up and the ultimate loss will be serious and wide- 
spread. Leading citizens of North Carolina and other States adjoining- 
have recenth' held a meeting and formed themselves into the Appala- 
chian National Park Association to push the project. It ought to go 
without much pushing. All that is needed is to set people thinking 
about it. 

Look at what the Government might do, and at what, on the con- 
trai'y, will be done if the National Government does not come in and 
protect nature there. Once done the mischief could never be undone. 
The loss would not be local, but national. Everybody who fails to see 
the North Carolina mountains suffers a direct loss, whether he knows 
it or not. Open the region to the whole country and let these sights 
be assured and available at all times, and the park would be one of 
the most popular resorts in the United States. 

Congress ought to jump at the chance to get possession of the great 
tract, at least 500,000 acres, said to be purchaseable now at hardly 
more than nominal figures. The cost of a single battle ship would 
give us this park available for future generations as well as for our- 
selves. It is to be hoped the committee will set the work going early 
and carry it to the success that the American people will wish for it 
and for themselves. 

[The Scientific .\raerican.] 

Within about a day's travel of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
Washington, and most of the Atlantic seaboard, and quite as accessible 
to Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Louisville, Indianapolis, and St. Louis there 
are vast stretches of virgin forests — along the line of the Great Smoky 



186 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

Mountains, on the border between Tennessee and North Carolina — 
that are thoroughl}' suited to the purposes of a great game and forest 
preserve. Going up from the lowlands of Walhalla, S. C, to the high 
plateau surrounding Highlands, N. C, a stage trip of about 30 miles, 
the late Professor Gray, the eminent botanist of Harvard, tells us that 
he encountered a greater number of species of indigenous trees than 
could be observed in a trip from Turkej^^ to England through Europe, 
or from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountain plateau. The 
region surrounding that described by Professor Gray, especiallj^ to 
the west, with the headwaters of the Tennessee, the French Broad, 
and the Savannah rivers, all within a few miles of each other, with 
fertile valleys and mountain elevations of 6,000 feet or more, and a 
density of verdure unapproached elsewhere, is an ideal spot for a pre- 
serve, where every sort of North American animal or fish would 
thrive, and where almost every tree or plant found within our borders, 
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would grow uncared for. 

[The New York Sun.] 

A national forest reserve in the Appalachian belt can be established 
onh' by the purchase of land, for there is no public domain in that 
region. The bill now before Congress directs the Secretary of Agri- 
culture to purchase not more than 2,000,000 acres of forest in the 
Southern Appalachians and appropriates $5,000,000 for that purpose. 
The lands must be situated within the States of Virginia, Noi'th and 
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. The purpose of 
establishing the proposed reserve is to introduce scientific forestry 
methods, conserve the forests, and at the same time permit lumbering 
in this large area of hard woods. 

No one now doubts that it was wise policy to set apart the forest 
reserves which have been established since 1896 in eleven of our West- 
ern States and Territories. The idea was at first strongl}'^ opposed on 
the gi'ound that the withdrawal of so much public land from purchase 
would retard the development of the States concerned and delaj^ the 
discovery of new sources of mineral wealth. These misgivings, how- 
ever, were not justified bj^ our policy with regard to the reserves. 
The Geological Survey has been engaged since the summer of 1897 
in studying the timber, mineral, and agricultural resources of these 
regions. All of them maj^ be developed as fast as capital and labor 
seek emploj'ment there. In some of the reserves, as in the Black 
Hills, for example, large industries have long been established. But 
these large areas can no longer be stripped of all their timber without 
a thought of tree replanting. The propagation of timber must here- 
after go hand in hand with its utilization; and destruction bj^ forest 
fires that have swept large areas will at least be diminished by proper 
regulations. 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 187 

But in our forest reserves the hard woods that have so prominent a 
place in our lumber industry and agricultural implement, furniture, and 
cabinet manufactures are scarcely represented. The cedar, tamarack, 
canon live oak, and tan-bark oak are the only hard woods of commer- 
cial importance found .on the reserves. Our walnut, maple, ash, 
locust, hickory, cherry, and beech timber are as yet dei'ived almost 
wholh' from the Central States, mainly east of the Mississippi. Tim- 
ber planting has not kept pace with timber cutting, and the supply is 
diminishing. Furniture makers already complain of the scai'city of 
black walnut. 

The only other source of these hard woods is the Appalachian belt 
from the southern part of New York to Alabama. Thej grow in larg- 
est numbers on the slopes of the southern half of these mountain 
ranges. On the neighboring lowlands spread awa}' the forests of long- 
leaf, short-leaf, and loblolly pines, which make "the great lumber 
industry of our South Atlantic States. The hard woods above them 
have as yet scarcely been touched, but with the diminishing supply of 
hard woods on the central plain from the Mississippi eastward, lum- 
bermen are beginning to look to the mountains. 

The question is whether this large source of suppty shall also be 
depleted or whether, by the methods of scientific forestry, the timber 
shall be renewed, so that later generations, as well as ourselves, may 
have the benefit of it. These forests can be protected only bj' Govern- 
ment regulation, and if the States do not take steps to conserve these 
large sources of wealth the question whether the National Government 
should not acqu.ire the right to do so at a time when it is asserted it may 
be cheaplj' acquired is certainlj" worth}' of serious consideration. 

[The New York Times.] 

One of the most interesting matters now before Congress, and one 
which should attract general attention, is the proposition for the estab- 
lishment of the Appalachian forest I'eserve, for which a bill was intro- 
duced in Congress a few days ago. This proposed measure directs the 
Secretary of Agriculture to purchase not to exceed 2,000,000 acres. 

[The Wilmington (Del.) Star.] 

The efforts of the Appalachian National Park Association are suc- 
ceeding far beyond the anticipation of the most urgent supporters of 
this great movement. * * * Prominent and influential men in 
every part of the country have given their aid, numerous newspapers 
have advocated the project, and as yet no adverse or unfavorable crit- 
icism has been heard or written, and it seems practicallj^ certain that 
with a united movement the park can be secured. * * * 



188 SOUTHERN AFPALACHIAN REGION. 

[Washington Post, January 3, 1900.] 

The location in western North Carolina of a great national park 
would be a cause of more pleasure and benefit to more people than any 
other public institution we can think of at this moment. 

[Brooklyn Eagle, January 14, 1900.] 

It ought to go without much pushing. All that is needed is to set 
the people thinking about it. 

[Prof. N. S. Shaler, in The Xorth American Review, December, 1901.] 

It may be charged that the legislation which established these reser- 
vations is, in its tendencies, socialistic, but the most inveterate enemy 
of that political theory, if he be open to i-eason, will not be disposed 
to contend against "such action. He will have to acknowledge that 
these gifts to the community are very helpful to its best interests, and 
that they could not have been secured by private or corporate endeavor 
or even by the action of individual States. They can be obtained by 
national action alone. * * * 

Although a national reservation in the southern upland will, per- 
haps, most commend itself to the people from their interests in the 
noble forests which it will permanently preserve, there are economic 
considerations that would of themselves warrant the undertaking. 
The effect of such a forested area on the streams which have their 
headwaters in this mountain district would be con.siderable and most 
advantageous. Properly located, this park would include the tribu- 
taries of rivers which flow to the Ohio, as well as streams that course 
to the Atlantic. It is evident that, in the future, these water courses, 
like all others in settled countries, are to be extensively utilized as 
sources of electric power. Owing to the form of the country, it will 
not be possible, as it is in New England, to hold back the stream water 
in reservoirs for use in the dry season of the year; the only econom- 
ical method will be to have the water stored in the spongy mat which 
naturally forms in an unbroken forest, and which to a great extent pre- 
vents the water courses from becoming beds of torrents in rainy sea- 
sons and in other times dry channels. In proportion to its area and 
rainfall, in relation to the whole of the drainage of the rivers flowing 
from it, such a forest reservation would serve to diminish the floods 
which, year by year, become more destructive to the tilled grounds and 
towns along the lower reaches of our great waterways, and more inju- 
rious to their value for navigation. This evil, already great, is con- 
stantly becoming a more serious menace, as the steep sides of the 
mountains are further stripped of tueir woods. * * * 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 189 

It is, or should be. an accepted principle that the Government is to 
provide for public needs when private enterprise, for anj- reason, can 
not be induced to make adequate provisions. * * * 

Such truly imperial gifts have greatly enriched a part of this countrj^; 
it will be well, before the remnants of primeval nature have vanished, 
that the other parts of our realm should have like share in them. 

fProf. \V J McGee in the Worlds Work, November, 1901. J 

The geographer in studying the Appalachian region perceives that 
in the wooded wilderness nature provides a vast reservoir sj'stem for 
the storage of storm waters — a system at once so perfect and so eco- 
nomical that all the 3^ear's rainfall (and light snoM' fall as well) is first 
appropriated to the uses of plant life, then conserved for a time in the 
subsoil against drought, and finally carried by subterranean seepage 
to the lower levels, where only the excess above local plant needs and 
animal demands is allowed to flow through spring and stream and ri\'er 
down the long- waj^ to the distant ocean. * * * 

Now he may turn another leaf to the closing lines of his lesson and 
read of that delicate interrelation of natural conditions which has 
resulted thixjughout the Appalachian region in the development of a 
floral mantle to stay the storms, and thus at once to sustain the flora 
itself and to estop destructive erosion. These final lines run deep into 
earth science and into plant science and need not be followed save by 
the specialist. Yet the ultimate axiom is simple, so simple that he 
who runs might read, so simple as to make it a marvel that observant 
men did not grasp it at the beginning of knowledge rather than wait 
until the end — it is the simple axiom that life prevails over death, 
that plant power is stronger than rock power. Nor can the geographer 
in the Appalachian region fail to applj' the axiom. He may call the 
application theory, ai-gument, policy, cause; he may whisper it in 
private council, may announce it in scientific conclave, may proclaim 
it in legislative halls, may send it ringing through the world and up 
the corridors of future time to benefit all mankind; he raay smother 
it cravenly in coward breast, or he may sacrifice it to paltry greed, 
yet if he is honest with his facts and with himself he can not fail to 
realize that the forests must be preserved, else the mountains will be 
destroyed. 

Only a generation ago science plodded wearily along one side of the 
pathw^a}' of human progress, while statecraft flitted airily along the 
other side of the straight and narrow path, both led in part by hered- 
itary' theories. But within the work time of men now living science 
and statecraft have drawn well into the main pathway of pj-actical 
humanity, and in this country at least, they have joined hands firmly; 
to dav science stands in the Federal Cabinet in all the dignitv of an 



190 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 

executive departmeut, while tlie leading statesmen are grasping that 
modern -g-eograph}' which seeks to assimilate science. So it is but 
natural that the mountaineers of the Appalachian region, a virile and 
farseeing race, and various representatives of jjublic interests have 
come to read alike the public lesson of conservation, the conservation 
of forests, in order that the very mountains may be conserved. 
Naturally, too, the applications of the lesson first came home to the 
hearts of the mountaineers amid their beloved ranges and rivers. 
They first noted the gullying of hillsides, with the accompanying- 
loss of soil and clogging of valley's and polluting of streams, when 
clearings were pushed too far up the valley sides. They first observed 
that the carelessly set forest fire produced, although more slowly, 
efl'ects as disastrous as those of injudicious clearing. They first noticed 
that reckless lumbering robbed the land not merely of trees but of 
soil, of welling springs, and of the trout-filled brook, which were 
converted into muddy, freshet-ridden streams, -running diy in mid- 
summer. They first realized that the stripping of the chestnut oaks 
for tan bark was but the first step in a cumulative desolation. They 
wei'e the first to realize the gradual change of brook and river from 
crj'stal streams flowing steadily all the season round to dirt}' danger 
lines mapped out by disastrous wrecks with every storm, onlj^ to lose 
themselves in mud between storms. Naturally, then, the agitation of 
a policy began among the mountaineers, and their voices were heard 
fii'st in local conventions, then in the legislative halls of sevei'al States, 
and finally before Federal Congress and Cabinet. Such, in brief, is 
the history of the movement toward an Appalachian forest reserve, a 
movement which maj^ lag or lunge according to the firmness of the 
alliance between science and statecraft, but which is manifestly des- 
tined for ultimate success, to the immeasurable benefit of mankind. 



RESOLUTION OF THE LEGISLATURE OF VIRGINIA. 

ResoVoed iy the senate of Yirginia, the house of delegates concurring. 
That the general assembly of Virginia, herebj' expresses its approval 
of the movement looking to the establishment bj^ the Federal Govern- 
ment of an extensive national forest in the Southern Appalachian Moun- 
tain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as man}' other nations 
have already adopted, and which this country has alreadj' adopted 
in the West and should adopt in the East before it is too late, looking 
to the conservation of its forests and the protection of the sources 
of important streams; and 

Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been 
approved and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry 
associations of this country' and by both the general and technical 
press; and 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 191 

Whereas the general assembly of Virginia has alread}^ passed an 
act granting the State's consent to the acquisition of lands in Virginia 
by the Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, 
believing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of 
this State; and 

Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the 
purchase of lands for this purpose: 

Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from 
this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance 
of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure; and that 
copies of this resolution be sent to the Senators and Representatives 
from Virginia. 

Passed unanimously by the legislature of Virginia, March 21, 1902. 



192 



SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 



PAETIAL LIST OF PAPERS THAT HAVE MADE FAVORABLE COMMENT 
ON PROPOSED APPALACHIAN FOREST RESERVE. 



Boston Herald. 

Boston Tran.script. 

Hartford Conrant. 

New York Times. 

New York Sun. 

New York Herald. 

New Yoik Lumber Trade Journal. 

New York Mail and Express. 

Great Round AVorld, New York City. 

New York Tribune. 

New York Evening Post. 

Engineering .lournal, New York City. 

Ithaca Journal. 

Albany Times. 

Albany Argus. 

Buffalo Commercial. 

Turf, Field, and Farm, New York City. 

Jamestown (N. Y.) Journal. 

Brooklyn Eagle. 

Brooklyn Citizen. 

Times Union, Albany, N. Y. 

Outing, New York. 

Recreation, New York. 

Brooklyn (N. Y.) Standard-Union. 

AVasliington Star. 

Washington Post. 

AVashington Times. 

Forest and Stream. 

American Gardening. 

Southern Field. 

Detroit Free Press. 

Baltimore Sun. 

Baltimore Herald. 

Baltimore American. 

Philadelphia Call. 

Harrisburg Telegraph. 

Philadelphia American. 

Philadelphia Inquirer. 

Pittsburg Dispatch. 

Pittsburg Post. 

Pittsburg Press. 

American Field. 

The Forester. 

Country Gentleman. 

Field and Stream. 



Chattanooga Times. 

Memphis Herald. 

Savannah (Ga. ) Press. 

Parkersburg (W. Va. ) Sentinel. 

Roanoke (Va. ) World. 

New Orleans Picayune. 

Louisville Dispatch. 

Louisville Courier-Journal. 

Citizen, Berea, Ky. 

Birmingham (Ala.) Age-Herald. 

Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser. 

Newport (R. I.) News. 

Providence (R. I.) Journal. 

Indianapolis News. 

Indianapolis Sentinel. 

Logansport (Iiid.) Reporter. 

Terre Haute Gazette. 

St. Louis Globe-Democrat. 

The Taxpayer (St. Louis, Mo.). 

Lynchburg (Va. ) Advance. 

Inland Printer. 

Engineering News (New York). 

Nashville American. 

Asheville Gazette. 

Atlanta Constitution. 

Atlanta Journal. 

Richmond Dispatch. 

Knoxville Sentinel. 

Knoxville Times. 

The Observer (Charlotte, N. C). 

Raleigh (N. C.) Observer. 

News and Courier (Charleston, S. C). 

Journal (Daytona, Fla. ). 

Tallahassee ( Fla. ) Tallahassian. 

Standard (Bridgeport, Conn.). 

Cincinnati Enquirer. 

Cleveland Leader. 

Toledo Journal. 

Chicago Times-Herald. 

Springfield (111.) Journal. 

Joliet (111.) News. 

Chronicle (Chicago, 111.). 

Tradesman (Chattanooga, Tenn.). 

American Israelite (Cincinnati, Ohio). 

Forest Leaves (Philadelphia), Pa.. 



Il^DEX 



A. 

Page. 

Acts of State Legislatures concerning proposed forest reserve 172 

Agricultural Department. (See Department.) 

settlements not disturbed by proposed reserve 38 

Agriculture in Southern Appalachians in general 14, 23, 24, 25, 26 

how affected by forests, water flow, etc . . . : 39, 134 

in detail, by river basins. . . 70, 71, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90 

short-lived 26 

Ailanthus, size, distribution, etc 103 

Allegheny Mountains 16 

Altitude of peaks and mountains 19, 20, 29, 114, 115 

effect of, on climate 23, 118, 128 

forests 22, 118 

Appalachian Mountains, region and valley 16 

Appendix A — The Southern Appalachians 41-110 

Forests and forest conditions of 45 

Forests of, by river basins 69 

Lumbering in 61 

Shrubs, list of 107 

Trees of 93 

B — Topography and Geology 111-123 

C— Hydrography 123-143 

D— Climate 143-155 

E — Present Status of movement for forest reserve 155-192 

Appropriation by Congress for investigation 13, 157 

Arbor vit«, size, distribution, etc 95 

Archsean rocks 120 

Area of cleared land 45, 69 

forest land 45, 69 

proposed reserve 38, 113 

region examined 45 

Ash, size, distribution, etc 101 

species of 103, 106 

Ashe, W. W. : 

Forest and Forest Conditions 45 

Forests by River Basins 69 

Shrubs, list of 107 

Trees, descriptive list of 93 

Azalea, size, distribution, etc 118 

B. 

Bald Mountains 18, 114 

Balm of Gilead, size, distribution, etc 96 

*S. Doc. 84 13 193 



194 INDEX. 

Page. 

Balsam, size, distribution, etc 94 

on Roan and other mountains 49 

Mountains 51, 115, 121 

topography, agriculture, forests, etc 52 

Bidge - J 47 

Basswood, size, distribution, etc 105 

Beech, size, distribution, etc 97 

Mountain 49, 115 

topography, forests, burns 49 

Bell-tree. (See Peawood.) 

Beveridge, Senator A. J. , report of committee by 168 

Big Pigeon River, description of 53, 114, 116 

Basin, topography, agriculture, etc 78 

forests of 79 

Birch, size, distribution, etc 96, 97 

Bitternut. ( See Hickory. ) 
Blackjack. (See Oak.) 

Black Mountains, description 19, 49, 50, 115 

topography, forests, burns 50 

Black Walnut, size, distribution, etc 95 

Blue Mountains, description 55 

Ridge, description 16, 18 

elevation and topography 114 

forests and topography of 46 

watershed 126 

Boundaries of proposed reserve 38 

suggestions concerning 163 

Box Elder, size, distribution, etc 104 

Broad River location and description i 114, 116 

floods in 1901., 130 

gaging stations on 136 

water power 141 

Basin. ( See Saluda River Masin. ) 

Buckeye, size, distribution, etc .._ 104 

Buckthorn, size, distribution, etc 104 

Burns. (See Fires.) 

Butternut, size, distribution, etc 95 

0. 

Cambrian Age, rocks of the - 119 

Caney River, forests of the 51 

Carolina Hemlock. (See Hemlock.) 
Shagbark. ( See Hickory. ) 
Cascades. (See Waterfalls.) 

Cataloochee Mountains, timber of 53, 54 

Catalpa, size, distribution, etc 106 

Catawba River 116 

floods in 1901 126,130,135 

gaging stations on 136 

power on 141 

Basin, forests of the 89 

toi^ography, etc 88 

Cedar ( Red ) , size, distriljution, etc 95 



INDEX. 195 

Page. 

Central interior, forests of the 51 

ridges, agriculture of the 51, 52 

Chattahoochee River, tiow, water power, etc 116, 135, 139, 141 

Chattooga Kiver, flow of 116, 135 

Cheoah Mountains ■ 115 

River, flowof 135 

water power on 142 

Cherry, size, distribution, etc 102 

species of 1 02 

Chestnut, on Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 52, 54, 55 

size, distribution, etc. 97 

Chestnut Oak. (See Oak.) 

Chinquapin, size, distribution, etc 97 

Clearings, effect of, on floods, water powers, etc 26, 28, 30, 131, 133 

elevation, slope, etc ' 23, 57 

erosion and impoverishment of 57, 58, 122 

management of, by Government 59 

method of making and cropping 58 

number, extent, percentage of ■. 23, 25, 26, 31, 45, 47, 48, 57, 69, 131 

reforestation of 58, 59 

short-lived usefulness of _ 24, 26, 58 

Cliffs, variety, location, description of 120 

Climate of middle latitudes ; 147 

Southern Appalachians 33, 117, 128 

Appendix D 143 

effect of altitude on 128 

healthfulness of 161 

meteorological tables 151, 152, 153 

rainfall 33, 128, 129, 149 

temperature 33, 148 

types of 147,148 

wind - 148 

Climatic features, special 34, 117, 147 

Clingman's Dome 19, 114 

Cloudbursts 117 

Coastal plain 113 

Coffee tree 103 

Comments of press on proposed reserve 180 

Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, report of the. 168 

Conasauga River, measurement of 137 

Conclusions of Secretary of Agriculture 38, 39 

Conglomerate group of rocks, description, distribution, etc 119, 138 

Congress, message to, from President McKinley 166 

President Roosevelt 3 

Fifty -sixth, bill in Senate of 158 

appropriation by, for investigations .' 13, 157 

Conifers on Great Smoky Mountains. 53 

(See also f^priice, Pine, etc.) 

Contents of this report, table of '. 7 

Contributors to this report — President Mclvinley 166 

President Roosevelt 3 

Secretary of Agriculture 13 

Secretarv of Interior 110 



196 INDEX. 

Page. 

Contributors to this report — Gifford Piiichot 43 

Charles D. Wolcott 110 

O. W. Price 61 

H. B. Ayres 45, 69, 93 

W. W. Ashe 45, 69, 93, 107 

Arthur Keith Ill 

H. A. Pressey 123 

E. W. Myers 123 

Alfred J. Henry 143 

Willis L. Moore 145 

Control of Southern Appalachians by Government. (See GoiKmrnent mnnar/e- 
ment. ) 

Coosa River, course and tiow 19, 135, 137, 139 

water power on 142 

Coosawattee River, measurement of 137 

Cornel, species and description 105 

Cost of mountain forest lands 36, 37 

Cowee Mountains, forests of 51, 52, 115 

Crab Apple, species and description 101 

Cragg}' Mountains (see also Black Moimtains) 49, 51 

Crops. (See under Agriculture; also names of particular localities.) 

Cucumber Tree, size, description, etc 100 

(See also Yelloic-flowered Cucmnber; Largeleaf Umbrella-tree; Umbrella-tree; 
Mountain Magnolia. ) 

Culling of forests in the past - 67 

(See also under Forests. ) 

Cumberland Plateau and Valley 16,18 

Currents, river, swiftness and measurements of 117, 135 

D. 

Damages from fires 24 

floods .- 32,117,130 

lumbering 24, 63, 64 

Damascus, forests and railroad at 48 

Dan River, gaging station 136 

Deforestation (see also under Clearings) 129 

Department of Agriculture, Secretary's reports 13, 166 

appropriation for investigation by 13 

Interior, Secretary's letter 110 

cooperation in investigation 14 

Descent of rivers ( see also Current.?; Waterfalls) 126 

Description of the Southern Appalachian forests 21 

by mountain groups -. 46 

by river basins 69 

Diameter limit in cutting timber 68 

Director of Geological Survey, letter accompanying report ' 110 

Diseased trees, removal of 67 

Disintegration of rocks 121 

Doe River 50 

Dogwood, size, distribution, etc 105 

Drainage of Southern Appalachian region 15, 1 7, 116 

basins, waterflow from ( see also River basins) 137 

systems of Coosa, Chattahoochee, and Savannah rivers 139 

Dukes Creek Falls 19,139 



INDEX. 197 

E. . 

Page. 

East Tennessee Yalley, farms and water power 16, 17, 18 

Elevation of Southern Appalachian ilountaina 19, 20, 113, 125 

effect on climate 23, 128 

forest species 22, 118 

Elk Creek, gaging stations 136 

Mountains 48 

Ellijay River, water power on l-t2 

Elm, size, distribution, species, etc 99 

Erosion of mountain lands, burned or cleared - - - 27, 59, 1 22 

forest covered 32 

grass covered 27 

valley lands 27, 38 

effects of 26,129 

extent of, in detail 69 

prevention of, by Government control 28, 59 

Etowah River, measurement of 137 

Evaporation from soil increased by denudation 122 

Ewing Mountain 48 

Extent of proposed reserve 38, 113 

F. 
Falls. (See Waterfalls.) 

Farmers, clearing and cultivation by ^ 24, 26, 58, 133 

Farms, existing, not to be disturbed 38 

(See also CTeann(;.s.) 

Faulty trees, removal of 67 

Federal Government, necessity for action by 34 

Felling trees, careless methods in 24, 57, 64, 65, 66, 131, 132 

Fertility of soil (see also under Soil) 122, 133 

Fires, area recently injured by -' 56 

causes of 65 

damages from 24, 55, 65 

in Europe 56 

Eocky Mountains 57 

danger from, increased by lumbering 57 

effects of, on forests, reproduction, humus 24, 55, 56, 133 

soil, floods, water storage 25, 56, 132, 133 

surface and pasture - 25, 65, 66 

prevention of, under Government forestry 56, 59, 65 

First Broad River Basin. (See Saluda River Basin. ) 

Flathead National Forest Reserve, purchase of Indian lands 36 

Flat Top Mountain 55 

Floods, caused by excessive rainfall, clearings, etc 28, 122, 129, 133 

damages from, in spring of 1901 130 

recent 32 

erosion of lands by 27 

increasing frequency of 131 

Flow of streams. (See Stream-flow. ) 

Forage plants destroyed by fires 25, 133 

Forest area, examined 21, 45, 46 

extent of - 26, 31, 45 

by river basins 69 

clearing, method and effects of 23, 24, 28, 31, 45, 47, 57, 69, 122, 131, 133 



198 INDEX. 

Page. 

Forest conditions, general - — 23 

by mountain groups 1-1,23,46 

changes in 55 

cover, necessity for -' 31, 118 

fires. ( See F^res. ) 

lands, cost of 36 

management, ditficulty of 66 

by Government 62, 65 

maps 21 

policy, necessity for changes in 25, 28, 66 

protection, a national problem 34, 35, 65 

trees, species of 93 

Forests, complexity 66 

composition 69 

culling 67 

description by mountain groups 46 

river basins 69 

destruction by lumbermen 24, 63, 64, 131, 132 

for tanbark 132 

distribution of 69 

effect on erosion 32 

floods 30,150 

water-power 142 

winds 118 

general character of 46 

of particular localities (see under name of Mountain or River basins) - 46, 69 

reproduction of 69 

species contained in the 69, 93 

variations in the 22 

Forest reserve, acts of State legislatures concerning 172 

benefits anticipated from 37 

boundaries of proposed 38 

extent of proposed 38 

extracts from press concerning 180 

Government purchase of land for a 37 

management of proposed 67 

memorials and resolutions concerning 13, 158 

movement for, present status of 157 

profit anticipated from 37, 62, 162 

reserves, value as examples 62 

Western 13,36 

Forestry, conditions favorable for 63 

French Broad River 116,126 

Basin, topography and soil .■ 76 

erosion and agriculture 76, 77 

forests, distribution, etc 77 

floods ill 1901 130 

flow and gaging of 135, 136 

water power on 142 

Freshets. (See Floods.) 

Fringe tree, size, distribution, etc 106 



INDEX. 199 

^- Page. 

Gaging stations 135 

data obtained at 136 

list and location of 136 

Geological Survey, report on hydrography 125 

topography and geology 113 

cooperation of, in investigations 14, 157 

methods of, in gaging streams 135 

of Appalachian watershed, 1900 135 

results of, where published 135 

Geologic formation of Southern Appalachians 119 

effect of, on surface 119 

Geology of Southern Appalachians (Appendix B) Ill 

Georgia, act consenting to acquisition of land by National Government 179 

resolution of legislature favoring Reserve 178 

Gillespie Gap 57 

Glacial deposits, effect of, in New England 134 

Cineiss group, size and composition 119, 120 

Gorges 29, 126 

Government management of forests, fire protection 56, 65 

methods and objects 28, 34, 36, 59, 65, 67 

profits from 37, 62 

Grades of rivers, effect of 116, 117, 126, 138 

Grandfather Mountain, location, height, etc 18, 19, 46, 114, 126 

topography, forests, burns, etc 50 

Granite 120 

Grazing, extent of 70, 74, 77, 78, 79, 81 

not improved by burning 25, 66, 133 

Great Smoky ^Mountains, cutting, burning, and grazing the forests 54 

extent of 18,53,114 

topography and forests 46, 53, 121 

Gum, Sweet, size, distribution, etc 101 

Black, size, distribution, etc 105 

Guyot Mountain 19, 51 

H. 

Hackberry, size, species, distriVjution, eti^ 99 

Hairy Pignut. (See Hickori/. ) 

Hardwoods, finest on continent 20, 38, 39 

main resource of region 61 

cover of Appalachians 45 

on Roan and other mountains 49, .53 

(See also Birch, Cherry, Oalc, etc., under the individual names.) 

Haw, Black 106 

Hemlock, Carolina 94 

on Iron, Roan, and other mountains 48, 49, 52, .54 

size, distribution, etc 94 

^yanting on Co wee and Nantahala mountains 52 

Henry, Alfred J., report on c'imate of region (Appendix D) 143 

Hickories of the Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 52 

Hickory, size, species, distribution, etc 95 

High water mark on the streams.. 137 

Hitchcock, E. A., Secretary of Interior, letter to Secretary of Agriculture 110 



200 INDEX. 

Page. 

Hiwassee River 115 

Basin, topography and soil 82 

agriculture and erosion 82 

forests, distribution, etc 83 

floods of 1901 130 

flow and measurement of 137 

water power of 142 

Holly, species of 103,104' 

Holston, Mountain Eidge 47 

River, flow, measurement, and power 116, 135, 136, 142 

Basin (southern tributarj' basins only) topography and soil .. 71 

agriculture and erosion 71 

forests, composition, etc 72 

Hop Hornbeam, size, distribution, etc 97 

Humidity of Southern Appalachians (Table 5) 153 

at various cities 150 

Humus, damaged by fire 24, 25 

Hydrography of Southern Appalachians (Appendix C) 125 

I. 

Illustrations, list of 9 

Interior Department. (See Sea'etary of Interior; Deparlmenl of the Tnterior; 
Geological Survey.) 

Interior mountain ridges, forests of 19, 46, 51 

Investigation of Appalachians, appropriation for 13 

cooperation of Interior Department in 14 

extent and location of area 15 

scope of - 14 

Iron Mountains 18, 47, 114 

Iron wood, size, distribution, etc 97 

Irregularities of streams. (See Streain-flow.) 

J. 

James River and tributaries, floods 1901 130 

gaging stations on 136 

water power on 141 

John River, gaging stations on 136 

K. 

Kanawha River (see also Ne^v Rii-er) 126 

floodsof 1901 130 

water power on , 141 

Keith, Arthur, Report on Topography and Geology of Region Ill 

L. 

Lakes, lack of 129 

Land, cost of 36 

Land slides 32 

titles 37 

Large-leaf Umbrella tree 100 

Large-tooth Aspen. (See A»pen.) 

Late Elm. {See Ehn.) 

Legislatures, resolutions and acts of (see names of the several States) 172,190 



INDEX. 201 

Page. 

Letter, President McKinley to Congress 166 

President Roosevelt to Congress 3 

Secretary of Agriculture to President McKinley 166 

Secretary of Agriculture to President Roosevelt 13 

Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester, to Secretary of Agriculture 43 

Secretary of Interior to Secretary of Agriculture 110 

Mr. Charles D. Walcott, Director of Geological Survey, to Secretary of 

Interior 110 

Mr. Willis L. IMoore, Chief of Weather Bureau, to Secretary of Agri- 
culture 115 

Limestone, distribution of 119 

group, shales, sandstones, etc 119 

Linn, size, distribution, etc 105 

Blue Ridge (see also Basswood) 105 

Linville Gap 127 

Mountains 126 

River, falls of 126 

gaging stations 136 

List of shrubs of Southern Appalachians 107 

Little Pigeon River, water power on 142 

Little Rock Creek 50 

Little Tennessee River, drainage of 116 

floodsinl901 130 

water i:)Ower on 142 

Basin, topography and soil 80, 81 

agriculture and erosion 81 

forest, distribution, etc 82 

Loblolly Pine. (See Pine.) 

Locust, species, size, distribution, etc 103 

Logging. ( See Lumbering. ) 

Lower Cambrian formation 119 

Lumbering, culling 57, 67 

damages in, by felling, rolling, etc 24, 57, 64, 65, 131, 132 

extent and increase 24, 57 

fires caused by 57 

Government control of 61, 68 

improvement in, necessary 66 

in Southern Appalachians generally 52, 53, 61 

methods, early and present 24, 61, 63, 64 

selection of trees in 67 

M. 

McDaniel Bald 53 

McGee, Prof. W. J., article by, on forest reserve 158 

extract 189 

McKinley, President, message to Congress 158, 166 

Management of forests by Government. (See GoKernment management.) 

Manuf?.cturing affected by stream flow 134 

importance of 139 

increasing tendency toward 139 

on lower streams 139 

Maple, size, distribution, species, etc 104 

on Co wee and Nantahala Mountains 52 



202 INDEX. 

Page. 

Maps of forests 21 

Marshes, lack of 129 

Mature trees, removal of 67 

Measurement of stream flow 135 

gaging stations for 135, 137 

tables, where published 137 

Memorials and resolutions favoring reserve 155, 190 

Meteorological report on Southern Appalachians 147' 

Military national parks, purchase of land for 36 

Mills, where established -6,47 

Mineral deposits may still be worked 38 

Minnehaha Falls 19, 139 

Mississippi Hackberry. (See Hackherry.) 

River, drainage to 115 

Mitchell County 126 

Mountain, forests of 23, 51, 114 

seasons vary with elevation 28 

Moore, AVillis L. , letter to Secretary of Agriculture 145 

Mountain groups, description of forests by 46 

lands. (See Erosion. ) 

Magnolia 100 

peaks. {See Peaks.) 

ranges 18, 113, 1 15 

systems 113 

Mountains of Southern Appalachians 16, 20, 114, 115 

Mount Mitchell 23,114 

Mulberry, size, distribution, etc ^ , 100 

Myers, E. AV., report on hydrography of region 123 

N. 
Nantahala Gorge, timber in 53 

Mountains, culled land and forests 51, 52, 115 

River, flow and water jiower 135, 142 

Narrowleaf Crabapple. (See CrabapjAe.) 

National Board of Trade, resolution of 165 

National control of land in the several States. (See names of States.) 

forest reser\'es, only means of preserving forests 40 

in the West 36 

forests, importance of preserving 35 

ow^lership, not new policy 36 

Park r. Forest Reserve : 36 

accessibility and size of proposed 113 

Navigation of lower streams, affected by flow 39, 134 

Needs of Southern .Appalachian region 59 

Newfound Mountains, forests and culled lands 51, 52, 115 

New River (see also Kanawha ) flow and gaging stations 116, 126, 135, 136 

Basin, topography and agriculture 69, 70 

forests, composition, etc 70 

Gap and Valley 47 

Newspapers commenting on proposed reserve, list of 192 

Nolichucky River Basin, topography and soil 74 

agriculture and erosion 74 

forests, composition, etc 75 



INDEX. , 203 

Page. 

Nolichucky River, flow of 116, 126, 135 

floods of 1901 'iSO 

gaging stations 136 

water power on 142 

North American Review, article by Prof. N. S. Shaler 188 

North Carolina, resolution favoring reserve 173 

act of legislature consenting to national ownership 173 

North Foe River 50 

Northwestern slope Smoky Mountains, agriculture and erosion 79 

forests, distribution, etc 80 

topography and soil 79 

O. 

Oak, size, distribution, etc 97 

species of 97, 98, 99 

Oaks on Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 52, 54, 55 

Object lesson, forest reserve as 37 

Observations of stream flow. (See Stream-flmo.) 

Ocmulgee River, measurement of 137 

Ocoee Group (see Conglomerate group) 119 

River, measurement of 115, 137 

Oconalufty River, railroad along ■_ .54 

flow of, and water power 135, 142 

Oconee River, measurement of '. 137 

Okoee River. (See Ocoee. ) 

Ownership of land, in New River region 48 

size of holdings 36 

P. 

Papaw, size, distribution, etc 100 

Park. {See National Park.) 

Peaks, character of 18 19 20 

description of 113 114 

forest-covered 20 38 

height of 20, 1 14 

Peawood, size, distribution, etc 105 

Persimmon, size, distribution, etc 105 

Phoenix Mountain 48 

Physiographic features of Southern Appalachians 125 

Piedmont Plateau 17,45,47,54,113,114,117,119, 125,126,138,150 

floods in 1901 130 

flow depends on clearings 134 

Pigeon River, floods of 1901 130 

gaging stations 136 

Pignut. {See Hickory.) 

Pinchot, Gifford, letter of transmittal to Secretary of Agriculture 43 

Pine, on Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 54, 55 

size, distribution, etc 93 

species of 93, 94 

Pinnacle Peak 114 

Pin Oak. {See Oak.) 

Pisgah Mountains 51, 115 

Plants, list of 107 



204 . INDEX. 

Pagre. 

Plum, wild 102 

Chickasaw 102 

Ponds, lack of 129 

Pond Mountains, height of 47 

Poplar, Yellow, size, distribution, etc 100 

Post Oak. (See Oak. ) 
Power. (See TT^o^er power. ) 

Precipitation, affected by altitude and season 118 

average and discussion 128 

effects on streams 117 

heaviest, except on Pacific Coast , . 31, 33, 38, 128, 149 

in 1900, 1901 137 

mean monthlj^ and annual (Table 4) ; 153 

on Mount Mitchell in summer of 1873 149 

torrential 150 

Preliminary report of Secretary of Agriculture 166 

Preservation of forests by National Government 34 

beyond field of individual 34 

power of States 35 

President, the. {See McKinley ; Roosevelt.) 

Press, extracts from the 180 

Pressey, H. A., report on hydrography of region 123 

Price, Overton W. , report on lumbering in the region 61 

Primeval forests, area of 45 

Pritchard, Senator J. C, bill in Congress presented by 158 

Private protection of forests impracticable 34 

Profit from forest reserve 37, 162 

conservative lumbering 62 

Protection of forests a national problem 35 

Purchase of forests by Government, how effected 35, 36 

Q. 

Quartzite group, location, thickness, etc ,, 119 

Quartzites, distribution of 119 

R. 

Railways in Balsam Mountains 53 

in Shady Valley 48 

Marietta and North Georgia 55 

via Cranberry to Johnson City 46 

(See also Transportation.) 
Rainfall (see Precipitation). 

necessitates forest cover 31, 33, 129, 149 

Raleigh (N. C), humidity at 153 

Rapidity of stream flow 117 

Rapids, number and use 138, 139 

Redbud 102 

Red Cedar. (See Cedar. ) 
Redheart Hickory. (See Hickory.) 
Red Oak. (See Oak.) 
Red Spruce. ( See Spruce. ) 

Reforestation of abandoned fields 59 

Region, the Appalachian 16 



INDEX. 205 

Page. 

Region, the Southern Appalacliian 17 

essential!}- mountainous 113 

source of rivers 28 

Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, preliminary 166 

present 13 

scope of 15 

Bureau of Forestry 43 

Geological Survey 110 

Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and Protection of Game. . 168 

Weather Bureau 145 

Reproduction of forests 69 

to be considered in lumbering 68 

Reserve. ( See Forest Reserve. ) 

Reservoirs, lack of i 129 

Resolutions. (See Memorials.) 

Rhododendron 118 

Richland Balsam 51, 115 

Rivers of Southern Appalachians, drainage of 28, 116 

falls of. (See Waterfalls.) 
floods in. (See Floods.) 

gorges of 29, 126 

grades in 116 

importance of, for agriculture, power, navi- 
gation 28, 29, 38 

velocity and volume 117 

(See particular names.) 

River Basins, description of forests by 69 

(See also under Forests, description of. ) 
Birch. (See Birch.) 

flow, direction of 1 15 

gorges, depths, and beauty 1 26 

grades ; 116, 117 

systems -. 115 

Roan Creek Mountains, gaging stations on 136 

description 18,46,115,121 

topography, forests, burns 49 

Roanoke River, floods in 1901 130 

gaging stations 136 

water power on 141 

Rocks. (See Granite, Quartz, Gtieiss, Limestone, etc.) 

relation of, to surface 120 

solution and disintegration of 120 

strike, dip, distribution, etc 119 

Rogers Mountain, height 47 

Roosevelt, President, message to Congress 3 

Rough Hackberry. (See Hackherry.) 

Ruby Falls 19,139 

Run-off of water, regulated by forests 128, 131, 150 

recent changes in 137 

S. 

Saluda River, drains to Atlantic 116, 126 

gaging stations on 135, 136 



206 INDEX. 

Page- 
Saluda River Basin (and First ami Second Broad) topography, agriculture, 

etc 87 

forests, distribution, etc 88 

Sand and gravel as water reservoirs 134 

Sand Hickor\'. (See Hick-orj/.) 

Sassafras, size, distribution, etc 100 

Savannah River 1 26 

gaging stations 136 

water power 141 

Sawmills, location, capacity, methods 46, 131, 132 

Scarlet Oak. (SeeOai-.) 

Scenery 19,29,116,160 

Scrub Pine. (SeePme. ) 

Seasons of 1900 and 1901 137 

vary with altitude on Mount Mitchell 23 

Second Broad River Basin (see Saluda River BaMn). 87 

Secretary of Agriculture, conclusions of, from report 38 

letter to Hon. A. J. Beveridge 171 

reports to President 13, 166 

Interior, cooperation in investigation 14 

letter of transmittal to Secretary of Agriculture. 110 

Seed trees, selection of 68 

Selection system in lumbering. 67 

Senate of United States, reserve bill reported to 158 

bill 5518, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session 168 

Committee on Forest Reservations and Protection of 

Game, report of 168 

Service tree 101 

Settlements not to be disturbed 38 

Shady Valley, forests of ., 48 

railway in 48 

Shagbark. {See Hickory. ] 

Shaler, Prof. N. S., extract from article in North American Review 158, 188 

Shellbark. {See Hickory.) 
Shingle Oak. (SeeOai-.) 

Shooting Creek Mountain 55 

Shortleaf Pine. {See Pine.) 

Shrubs in Southern Appalachians, list of 107 

Silky Willow. (See Willow.) 

Silt, formation and movement of 26, 121,134 

Slates, distribution of 119 

Slippery Elm. (See Elm.) 

Slopes of mountains, agriculture on, short lived ■ 26 

clearings on 57 

forest-covered 21, 126 

grass-covered 27 

soil on the : 125 

steepness of the - 21, 25, 115, 126 

Smoky Mountains. ( See Great Smoky Mountains. ) 

Snow, earliest and latest 118 

stored in forests 118 

Soco Gap 53 

Soil, affected by forests 31,121 



LB '06 



INDEX. 207 



Soil, affected by firea 25,26 

clearings 26,38,121,122 

leeching, etc 133, 134 

described by river basins 69 

formation of 121 

natural fertility of ' 122, 133 

storage of water by the 31, 134 

Solution of rooks, effects of 120 

Sourwood 105 

South Holston River , _ 47 

South Carolina, resolution of legislature favoring reserve 176 

act consenting to national control of reserve 1 77 

Southern Appalachians, clearings and agriculture 25, 28 

climate 143 

forests 45, 69 

geology ; 113 

hydrography 123 

lumbering 24, 61 

movement for reserve in 157 

mountains in 16, 20, 114 

needs of 59 

region 17 

rivers 17 

scenery 19 

stream-flow 135 

water power 29, 38 

(See under above headings for details.) 

Southern end of Appalachians 19 

topography and forests 46, 54, 55 

Southern Red Oak. (See Oak). 

South fork of Holston River. (See Holston River. ) 

Spotted Oak. (See Oa/t.) 

Springs 19,116,125,133 

Spruce, species, size, distribution, etc 94 

on Balsam and other mountains 48, 49, 52 

Staghorn Sumach. (See Sumach. ) 

Standing Indian Peak 114 

State ownership of reserves 35 

States, action by, concerning proposed reserve 172 

common corner of Virginia, North Carohna, and Tennessee 47 

Staunton River, gaging station on 136 

Stone Mountains 47, 115 

Storage of water, aided by humus, forests, porous soil 25, 31 , 122, 131 

Stream conditions in 1900, 1901 137 

Stream-flow, about the Unakas. 127 

affected by springs, seepage, fires, forests, clearings, etc 30, 

117, 122, 133, 134 

condition of, in 1900, 1901 137 

data of Geological Survey 137 

in mountains and plateaus 134, 135 

investigation of, scope 15 

measurement of 135 

modified by geological structure 138 



208 INDEX. 

Page. 

Stream-flow, regulates floods, droughts, power 117 

uniformity essential 30, 117 

volume and velocity of 117, 137, 138 

(See also Rivers, Floods, Water power). 

Sugar Mountain 49 

Sumach, Staghorn 103 

Surface affected by solution and disintegration of rocks 120 

types of 115 

Swamp White Oak. (See Oak.) 

Swannanoa River 51 

Sweet Birch. {Bee Birch.) 
Gum. (See Gum.) 

Sweetleaf 105 

Sj'camore, size, distribution, etc 101 



Tables. (See Temperaiure, Humidity, Precipitation.) 
Table Mountain Pine. (See Pine.) 

Tallapoosa River, measurement of - 137 

Tallulah Falls 19,139 

River, gaging station 136 

Chattooga River Basin, topography and soil 84 

agriculture and erosion 84 

forests, distribution, etc 85 

Tan liark, forest destruction for 132 

Tellico River, water power on 142 

Temperature, general, in region ,. 33, 117, 128 

Tiighest monthly (Table 2) ..". 152 

lowest monthly (Table 3) 152 

normal, mean, monthly (Table 1) 151 

on Mount Mitchell in summer, 1873 33, 149 

proportional to altitude 148 

Tennessee River, drainage and measurement of 115, 126, 135, 137 

water power on 142 

resolution of legislature favoring reserve 174 

act of legislature consenting to Government ownership of land 175 

Thorn, size, distribution, species, etc 101, 102 

Three Top Mountain 48 

Timber, future supply of 25 

kinds of 63 

Title to lands (see Ownership) 37 

Toccoa River. (See Ocoee River. ) 

Toe River 50, 51 

Topographic features of mountain groups 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54 

Topography by river basins 69 

of Southern Appalachians generally Ill, 113 

Toxaway Mountains 51 

River Basin, agriculture and erosion 86 

forests, composition, etc 86 

topography and soil 85, 86 

Tram roads 131 

Transportation (see also Raihoays) 59 

T rees of Southern A ppalach ians -. 93 



INDEX. 209 

Page. 

Tuckaseegee River, floods of 1901 130 

flow-andsize 116,126,136 

water power on 142 

Tugaloo River, gaging station on 136 

Tusquitee Mountains 115 

Types of weather. (See TFrattcr. ) 

u. 

Umbrella tree 100 

large-leaf 100 

Unaka Mountains, description and topography ; 18, 19, 113, 114 

Range, slopes, description 51, 53, 127 

streams of 127 

TJnculled forests, area of 45 

in New River Vallej' 48 

United States Geological Survej'. (See Geological Suney. ) 

V. 

Valley lands cleared 26 

washed by floods 27 

Valley, Great Appalachian, and others 16, 17, 114 

Valleys, character of 20, 21 

affected by floods 27, 129 

Valley River Mountains 55 

Virginia, act of legislature consenting to Government ownership of reserve 172 

resolution of legislature favoring reserve 190 

Volume and velocity of rivers 117 

W. 

WaJcott, Charles D., letter of submittal to Secretary of Interior 110 

Walnut. (See Black Walnut.) 

Watauga River, description 1 16, 126, 127 

floods in 1901 130 

gaging stations 136 

water power on 142 

Basin, topography and soil 72 

agriculture and erosion 73 

forests, distribution, etc 73 

Water, abundance of , 125 

falls, list of principal _ 19, 116, 126, 139 

value for power 29, 139 

flow depends on forests 30, 39 

gaging stations 15, 136 

measurement of 15,. 135 

( See Stream-flow. ) 
Water Oak. (See Oak.) 

Water power, abundance of 29, 39, 131 

availability of 30, 141 

depends on flow at low water 131 

importance of 140 

streams adapted to 128, 137, 139 

total amount used and unused 141 

(See also individual rivers b}' names.) 

*S. Doc. 84 l-t 



210 INDEX. 

Paffe. 

AVatershed of ai-ea, Blue Ridge 115 

examination of 135 

Water storage in soil, affected by forests 25, 31, 122 

Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 49, Report of Geological Survey 137 

Weather Bureau, Report of, on Southern Appalachians 143 

conditions at high levels 149 

observations on Mount Mitchell, 1873 149 

tables ,. 151,152,153 

types 148 

White Elm. {See Elm.) 

Hickory. (See Hickory.) 
Oak. (See OaTc.) 
Pine. (See PiiiR.) 

in Shady Valley 48 

on Liuville River 46 

on Newfound Mountain 52 

size of 118 

Top Mountain group, forests of the 46, 47, 48 

region, forests and topography of 47 

Willow, size, distribution, etc 96 

species of 96 

Wilson, Hon. James. (See Secretary of Agriculture.) 

Winds prevailing 118 

moist, effect on vegetation ^ 119 

determined by cj'clonic storms 148 

day and niglit, in summer 148 

Winged Elm. (See Elm.) 

Witch Hazel, size, distribution, etc 100 

Wolf Creek, lumbering on 52 

AVooded lands, percentage of. (See Forests hy river basins.) 

World's Work, article in, by Prof. W J McGee 189 

Y. 

Yadkin River, flow to Atlantic 116,126 

floods in 1901 130 

gaging stations 135, 136 

water power on 141 

Isasin, agriculture and erosion 90 

forests, composition, etc 91 

topography and soil 90 

Yates Knob Ridge 51 

Yellow Birch. (See Birch.) 

flowered Cucumber-tree. (See Oucumbei'-tree.) 

Mountains , 50, 115 

Oak. (See Oak.) 

Poplar. (See Pop to'. ) 

wood 103 



O 



'" "-c- 



, » \V 



:; -. , V 



- 



■'bo'* 









>^> 









=.•< -r^ 






O 0^ 



^^. 






\f. 





'.^ : 










■o ^ 




<■ ".*> 




' IP 




■:'■ J- -^ 










^OQ' 




.5 ^._ 




>■ — ^ -- 












•^. c^- 



-'■>■ ,vV 



,x^' 



.■-V 



.\i- 



X^" 









'<:p,<;v 



.'v'^' 



'-?> 









^r 



^^ ' 



<^ ". 



"^y- V^' 






v< 



i^' - 



'<=■, 



s^ 






v^f-^ '^ 



v-.N"-' 



o 



s^"^ -^^ 






6 -^c^ 



rO- 






'-^ >^ 



V 



•^A V" 






V -5 






^ 0' 






■'^' 






''A V 



V 



•^a^ 



<*■, 



..-i>" 






,^:^ ^*. 



^0' 



■^^ .^ 

:^^\. 



^V •^ 






V 



.*^' 



"^^ / 



,^~^ '<t 



,^> "^^ 



5Sa«5a»,*->-,iV-. 



